




SM, Itff&tS 



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Class .,— U ^>£Hij 

Book &* 

Copyrights? 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 

THE POWERS 



NEW COLLECTIONS OF UNIVERSAL INTEREST 



In Preparation: 

Ready December 1, 1914: 

H. H. Pius X— The Conclave— H. H. Benedict XV 

A biography of H. H. Pius X and appreciation of his reign, the procedure of 
the Conclave, and a biography of H. H. Benedict XV, with illustrations in color 
and half tone. 

To be published after the war is finished and peace concluded : 

The European War — Campaigns and Episodes 

A correct and impartial description, with the conclusions of the different 
general staffs, with authentic pictures. 



To be published a few weeks later: 

The European War — Heroic Episodes 

Anecdotic description of the most prominent heroic deeds according to the 
official reports of the orders and decorations distributed by the different nations, 
with original etchings and illustrations. 



To be published a few zveeks later : 

The European War — Consequences 

A study of the geographical, economic and political changes and moral effects 
of the conflict. 

Each volume of the European War is absolutely complete in itself 



N. B.— If our patrons are interested, upon receipt of a notice with legible signature 
and address, we shall be pleased to send for inspection, free of charge, a copy of the desired 
publication as soon as published. 



XI 



THE 

EUROPEAN WAR 

The Powers 

i 

EDITED BY 

R. STROPPA-QUAGLIA - 







NEW COLLECTIONS OF UNIVERSAL INTEREST 

PUBLISHED BY 



Ctrhw Z> 

1 — ^ > — ^x^ — i x — r 



<£* v 



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COPYRIGHT, 1914 
BY EDITIONS D' ART CO. 



OCT I4S9I4 

PRINTED BY 

BOOK PUBLISHERS' PRESS 

NEW YORK 

©CI.A380853 ^__ 



In the compilation of this book advantage has been taken of the courteous 
permission to reproduce pictures from various publications to which acknowl- 
edgement is made below. In no case, however, has any use been made knowingly 
of any copyrighted picture without the permission of the proprietor of the copy- 
right. The text and most of the pictures, paintings and etchings reproduced, 
are wholly original. We now make grateful acknowledgement of courtesies 
received from the proprietors of the following publications : 

Illustrated London News Armee et Marine 

The Graphic Lecture pour tous 

Black and White Je sais tout 

Army and Navy Le quinzaine Illustre 

Illustrierte Zeitung Le Monde Illustre 

Deutsche Illustrierte Zeitung Illustrazione Italiana 

Die Woche La Lettura 

Illustration Francaise Varietas 

as well as from THE INTERNATIONAL NEWS SERVICE 
and from UNDERWOOD AND UNDERWOOD 

for their pictures used for reproduction, and to these concerns and publications, 
we tender hereby due credit, appreciation and thanks. 

EDITIONS D' ART CO. 



f,;: 1 ! M * ■? 



information is given of forms of government, of princes, of kings, and of much 
else which will not survive the present war unimpaired. 

The Editors believe that the wealth of illustration, which increases the 
interest and value of their volume, will later possess a tenfold value and interest 
as a means of enabling readers to visualize an Old Regime which has passed. 

With the close of hostilities and after the publication of the official reports, 
of the different general staffs, both of the warring and neutral nations, sufficient 
facts will be public to offer a legitimate field for opinion, and access will 
be had to sources which will make possible an accurate and impartial account of 
the war. Then the Editors have planned to publish other volumes, the material 
for which is already gathered. Arrangements have been made to obtain the 
valuable co-operation of prominent political and military authorities of the differ- 
ent nations in order to have only the most accurate description of facts. 

We wish to offer our thanks and best appreciation to the consulates of the 
warring nations for their very kind assistance in enabling us to consult the latest 
official statistics. ' 

We desire also to express a very sincere and deep appreciation to the Royal 
and Imperial Austro-Hungarian, and to the Imperial German General, Consuls, 
who in the midst of their pre-occupation and press of work, found time to* 
revise the chapters of the sections of their respective countries. 

THE EDITORS. 




The Red Cross 



Ten per cent, of the profit of our publication 
is devoted to the Red Cross fund. A monthly 
financial statement will be made public and the 
allotted sum, divided among Austria-Hungary, 
England, France, Germany and Russia, in five equal 
parts, will be sent to the respective consulates from 
which it will be forwarded to the Red Cross abroad. 

The monthly financial statement will be revised 
by a special board, among whose members we have 
the honor of enlisting: 

R. H. L. Cottenet Harrison G. Rhodes 

Henry G. Gray Luigi Sillitti 

Philip Lewisohn Henry J. Whigham 




"WOMEN IN WAR" BY PETER KAHLMAN 



THE RED CROSS 

Though a Red Cross society was not organized until the middle of the 19th 
century, various nursing orders of Sisters were accustomed to visit tht field 
after a battle and do what they could to alleviate the sufferings of the wounded. 
In the Crimean War of 1854, Florence Nightingale, who had studied nursing 
with the Sisters of Charity, volunteered to form a band of lay nurses for the 
relief of the soldiers and her services won for her the gratitude of the nations. 
In 1861, Henri Dunant published his experiences of the Franco-Italian War 
against Austria (1859) in "Un Souvenir de Solferino." This book created such 
a deep impression and the public was so aroused by the conditions revealed, that 
an unofficial conference met at Geneva in 1863, under the auspices of M. Gustave 
Moynier, to discuss plans for the relieving of the condition of wounded soldiers. 
The meeting was attended by delegates from 16 governments and remained in 
session 4 days. It was followed by a convention to which all nations were invited 



to send delegates, and which convened at Geneva in 1864. A code for the 
alleviation of suffering during war was drawn up, and has since been adopted 
by most of the European countries. This code was revised on July 6, 1906, and 
biy it all the countries agree to respect the persons and property of those who 
voluntarily devote themselves to this work. They must have a recognized cos- 
tume, flag and arm badge (a red cross on a white ground). This insignia was 
adopted out of compliment to the Swiss, whose national flag is a white cross on 
a; red ground. The Red Cross must on all occasions be accompanied by the national 
flag. Each treaty nation must have one national committee, civil in character 
and function, which shall be the medium of communication with its government, 
and which alone shall have the right to use the red cross. 

The Red Cross first came into practical operation during the Franco-Prussian 
War, but owing to lack of management did not accomplish as much as had been 
expected. Since then more attention has been paid to organization, and the 
European countries have efficient Red Cross corps attached to their armies. Aside 
from considerations of humanity, they realized that a wounded soldier when 
properly taken care of, was, in many cases, able to resume the field within a 
comparatively short time, and it was thus much easier to fill the gaps of the 
regiments caused by the havoc of war. In war, the Red Cross mobilizes with the 
army, is under the command of army surgeons, and forms part of the army 
sanitary body. 

The International Conference of 1912 was agreed on the plan of extending 
the operations of the Red Cross to humanitarian measures in time of peace, not 
only for philanthropic reasons, but also in order to preserve the efficiency of the 
organization for war purposes. Great Britain alone held to the strict war 
services. In many countries the Red Cross has done valuable services in educating 
the people to the advantage and importance of sanitary measures and has waged 
a; constantly successful war against such diseases as tuberculosis. 

The Italians have taken up the work of the Red Cross with enthusiasm. It 
is marvelously well organized, down to the smallest towns, is supported with 
great generosity, and does an immense amount of relief work in connection with 
the poor. The Austrian Red Cross follows the Italian organization to a great 
extent, while the French incline more to Russian lines, which permit a more 
mobile organization. In Russia the Red Cross met with great popular favor, and 
early assumed more importance and influence than in other countries. The 
government subsidizes it, granting it many privileges, and the Dowager Empress 
Marie donates considerable sums to it. In Germany the Red Cross takes on a 
more military aspect, being more directly associated with the army medical corps. 
Imbued with the German spirit for accuracy, detail and precision, the organization 
has a special efficiency and carries its military order into the struggles against 
tuberculosis, in which it has been very successful. The British Red Cross devel- 
oped more slowly, but in the South African war did good service, and since then 
has been carefully organized. The Russo-Japanese War awoke the spirit of 
devotion and service in the Japanese, and the work of the Red Cross in the field 
was highly praised. Since the war a Red Cross association has been attached to 
every hospital. 




A MODERN EQUIPMENT OF THE RED CROSS 




s. s. "red cross:* 



THE AMERICAN NATIONAL RED CROSS 

The American Association of the Red Cross, was founded by Clara Barton,, 
the famous Civil War nurse. It numbered about a dozen nurses, and developed 
very slowly. Miss Barton early perceived the need of a trained organization, 
national in scope and permanent in character, which could have a wider career 
of usefulness than mere war service, and render assistance in times of disaster. 
Under her influence the Red Cross gradually extended their operations to include 
relief and preventative measures in time of peace, an idea which had great popular 
appeal. Hence in 1905, Congress passed an act incorporating the American 
National Red Cross, declaring its purpose (aside from duties in war) to be to 
continue and carry on a system of national and international relief in time of 
peace, and apply the same to mitigate the suffering caused by pestilence, fire and 
flood. It now has about 3,500 trained nurses, all with three years' hospital 
experience. They hold themselves in instant readiness to respond to the call 
of the Red Cross, in war or peace, during special emergencies, such as the San 
Francisco earthquake, the Titanic disaster and the Ohio floods of 1912. In the 
last instance more nurses applied than could be used. 

The governing body consists of a central committee (18 members), the 
chairman and five members of which are appointed by the President of the United 
States. The remaining members are elected at the annual meeting of the society. 
There are three relief boards: War, National and International; each State 
has a board (3 to 10 members), appointed by the Chairman of the Central 
Committee, and the Governor of the State is chairman of this board. Local 
organizations, called chapters, are formed in over a hundred cities, the duty of 
which is to collect funds and supplies. Charitable organizations may enroll as 
"institutional members," and any citizen of the United States is eligible for 
membership. 

At the outbreak of the present European War, the Red Cross equipped a 
supply ship for the relief of the wounded and sick. Under the rules of the 
Genevan and Hague agreements, a ship of this nature is permitted to enter any 
harbor, but the S. S. "Red Cross" will not proceed to German or Russian 
harbors, and it is stated that supplies for those countries will be sent overland 
through the lines. At the time of the Messina earthquake, the Red Cross also 
sent. a supply ship, which was of immense help. 




Austria - Hungary 





FRANCIS JOSEPH THE FIRST 




The Hapsburg 
Family 





THE ARCHDUKE CARL FRANCIS JOSEPH, HEIR TO THE THRONE, 
HIS WIFE, THE ARCHDUCHESS ZITA, AND THEIR TWO CHILDREN 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




THE LATE EMPRESS ELIZABETH, CONSORT OF FRANCIS JOSEPH 





EMPEROR MAXIMIL 

IAN, BROTHER OF 

FRANCIS JOSEPH; 

KILLED BY THE 

MEXICANS 



CHARLOTTE, WIFE 
OF MAXMILIAN 



THE LATE ARCHDUKE RU- 
DOLF, ONLY SON OF 
FRANCIS JOSEPH 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 




FRANCIS JOSEPH I 

Francis Joseph I (born 1830), 
Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia 
and Apostolic King of Hungary, is the 
eldest son of Archduke Francis (son 
of Francis I) and Archduchess Sophie, 
Princess of Bavaria. On the abdica- 
tion of his uncle, Ferdinand I, on De- 
cember 2, 1848, Francis Joseph became 
Emperor. His accession took place in 
the midst of revolution in Italy and 
Hungary. The Emperor personally 
entered the Hungarian campaign, and, 
aided by Russia, subdued Hungary, 
while his army quelled the Italian in- 
surgents. Following the subjugation of 
Hungary, the most reactionary meas- 
ures were carried out, the rights of na- 
tionalities ignored, and a bureaucratic 
centralization was restored. But neither 
Italy nor Hungary was conquered. The 
Emperor then waged a successful war 
with Prussia against Denmark, but in a 
dispute over the spoils the allies en- 
gaged in a war which ended by Aus- 
tria's crushing defeat at Sadowa 
(Konigsgratz) in 1866. 
The Empress Elizabeth (daughter of Duke Maximilian of Bavaria), whom 
Francis Joseph had married in 1854, was murdered in 1898, and on the death 
of the Emperor's only son Rudolf in 1899, Archduke Francis Ferdinand (son of 
Archduke Karl Ludwig, the Emperor's nephew), became heir to the crown. But 
he and the Achduchess (Countess Sophie Chotek) were assassinated on June 
28, 1914, and since Francis Ferdinand had renounced at marriage the rights of 
the future children to the crown, the succession passed to the Emperor's nephew, 
Karl Francis Joseph (born August 17, 1887; married Princess Zita of Parma 
on October 21 191 1). The Archduke and Archduchess have two children. 

Francis Joseph is one of the most remarkable figures of Europe by reason 
of his great age and ability to hold together the diverse races of his empire. 
He is distinguished by his personal love for his people, his sterling sense of justice, 
charm and frankness of manner, his sense of duty and responsibility to his people, 
and the democratic manner with which he receives the visits of prince and 
peasant alike. His love for and generosity to the poor have won for him the 
title of "Our Franz." . . , 

A singular fatality seems to have followed this house, and the reign ot 
Emperor Francis Joseph has seen the culmination of the tragedies that have 
fallen upon the family. The Emperor was barely on the throne five years, when 
the knife of an assassin inflicted a serious wound, a sinister omen of what was 
to come. His brother, Maximilian, accepted the title of Emperor of Mexico, 
only to fall a victim on June 16, 1867. Archduke William Francis fell from his 
horse in 1894 and died from the injuries then received. Archduke John ot 
Tuscany renounced his rank, and under the name of John Orth, disappeared 
with his yacht off the coast of South America and was never heard of. His 
cousin and two of his sisters-in-law met violent deaths. His son, the Crown 
Prince Rudolf, was found dead in his castle at Meyerlmg on Jan. 30, 1889, and 
the assassination of his wife and nephew summed up the story of his sorrows. 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




THE LATE ARCHDUKE FERDINAND AND HIS FAMILY 
THE ASSASSINATION OF THE ARCHDUKE AND THE ARCHDUCHESS 
LED TO THE PRESENT EUROPEAN SITUATION 

HOUSE OF HAPSBURG 
The Hapsburg family takes its name from Castle Hapsburg in the Swiss 
canton of Argau, and the title of Count of Hapsburg was first assumed by 
Werner I (d. 1096). Count Rudolf was elected Emperor of the Holy Roman 
Empire in 1273. He acquired Austria, and became the founder of the imperial 
line (See History of Austria), which has given sovereigns to the Holy Roman 
Empire, Austria and Spain, and is connected with nearly every royal house in 
Europe. Through the Pragmatic Sanction Maria Theresa was enabled to assume 
the government on the extinction of the male line, and in 1745 her husband, 
Duke Franz of Lorraine-Tuscany, was elected emperor; thus was founded the 
present imperial house of Hapsburg-Lorraine. The story of the Hapsburgs is 
virtually that of Austria from the 13th century. 




THE CROWN PRINCE AND HIS SON 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 




HISTORY 

Austria was first inhabited by the Taurisci (a 
Celtic people, then successively by the Norici (who 
were conquered by the Romans about 14 B. C), 
the Boii, Vandals, Goths, Huns, Longobards and 
Avars. Charlemagne expelled the latter, and made 
the territory a margraviate, called the Eastern mark 
or Ostreich. The Hungarians invaded in 900, but 
were conquered (955) by Emperor Otto I, who 
reunited Ostreich with the German realm. The 
Emperor appointed (983) Leopold of Babenberg 
as margrave. This prince conquered a large por- 
tion of Hungary, and under his successors more 
territory was added, and the margraviate received 
important privileges and was made a duchy. On 
the extinction of the Babenberg house in 1246, 
Ottokar, King of Bohemia, after some fighting ob- 
tained the Austrian lands ; to these he added Styria 
(by conquest in 1260) and Carinthia and Carniola 
(by inheritance in 1269). But in the war brought 
on (1276) by his refusal to recognize Emperor 
Rudolf of Hapsburg, he was defeated, and Rudolf gave Austria, Styria and 
Carinthia in fief to his sons Albert and Rudolf, thus laying the foundation of the 
future greatness of the Hapsburgs. Under the Hapsburg policy Austria grew 
in power. Albert III acquired the Tyrol ; Albert V secured Hungary and 
Bohemia, and, by his marriage with the daughter of Emperor Sigismund, was 
elected Emperor in 1438. From this time the Hapsburgs held the imperial crown, 
excepting for one short period, until the downfall of the Holy Roman Empire in 
1806. With Ladislas, Albert's son, the Austrian Hapsburg line became extinct 
(1457), and its possessions went to the Styrian line. Under Frederick III Austria 
was made an archduchy, and through the marriage of Maximilian I with Mary 
of Burgundy the Netherlands were acquired in 1477. In 1516 a Hapsburg 
succeeded to the Spanish throne, in the person of Charles I (son of Philip the 
Fair and Joanna of Castile and grandson of Maximilian I of Austria). In 1519 
this Charles became German Emperor as Charles V. In 1521 he resigned the 
Austrian possessions to his brother, Archduke Ferdinand, and Ferdinand, 
through his marriage, became King of Bohemia and was chosen by the nobles 
King of Hungary. But the National Party chose another candidate, and, owing 
to the great wars for the succession, in which Turkey aided Hungary, Austria did 
not obtain undisputed possession of Hungary until the 18th century. In 1556 
Charles V abdicated in favor of Ferdinand. Ferdinand II during the Thirty 
Years' War made a last fruitless attempt to bring all Germany under Austrian 
rule, and succeeding rulers, realizing the impossibility of such a plan, hav° 
devoted themselves to purely Austrian interests. Leopold I, by his severity, 
provoked the Hungarian rebellion, and in 1687 forced the Hungarians to make 
their kingdom hereditary in the Hapsburg family. Prince Eugene forced the 
Turks to resign (1690) the country between the Danube and the Theiss, and 
Austria also obtained Transylvania. 

The claims of Archduke Charles brought Austria into the War of the 
Spanish Succession, and from the Peace of Utrecht (1714) she received the 
Spanish Netherlands, Milan, Mantua, Naples and Sicily. Then followed periods 
of curtailment. By the Peace of Vienna (1736), Naples and Sicily went to Spain 
and part of Milan to Sardinia in return for Parma and Piacenza; by the Peace 



10 THE EUROPEAN WAR 




of Belgrade (1739), Belgrade, the adjoining Servian lands, and the Austrian 
parts of Wallachia and Bosnia went to Turkey ; by the Austrian Succession War 
(which broke out when Maria Theresa assumed the government, the male line 
having become extinct in 1740), Prussia obtained Silesia; and by the Peace of 
Aix-la-Chapelle, Austria lost Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla. The Seven Years' 
War, and Maria Theresa's fruitless attempt to regain Silesia, drained Austria's 
blood, and the years following were devoted to fostering industry and commerce, 
encouraging education and improving the condition of the serfs. These reforms 
were carried on by Joseph II, who, however, in his zeal disregarded national 
prejudices, and thereby provoked the revolt in the Netherlands and aroused 
discontent in Hungary. In the first partition of Poland Austria acquired Galicia 
and Lodomeria, and the Porte ceded Bukowina in 1777. 

By the Treaty of Campo Formio, which closed Austria's war with France 
(1792-97), Austria lost the Netherlands and Lombardy, but acquired Venetian 
Istria and Dalmatia. In 1804 the Emperor declared himself hereditary Emperor 
of Austria, taking the title of Kaiser, and united all his dominions in one empire. 
The war of 1805 against Napoleon resulted in the disastrous defeat at Austerlitz 
and the Treaty of Pressburg, by which Austria lost Venice, Istria, Dalmatia, the 
Tyrol and part of Suabia. Following this treaty came the establishment of the 
Rhine Confederation and the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire, when the 
Hapsburgs lost their title of 500 years. 

Austria's heroic attempt in 1809 to defeat Napoleon was crushed in the 
battle of Wagram, and the Peace of Vienna deprived her of part of her hereditary 
dominions. In 1812, after the close of the successful war of the anti-Napoleon 
coalition, Austria regained Lombardy, her Venetian territory, the Tyrol and 
the possessions taken by Napoleon in 1809. During the restoration period she 
played an important part in German politics, exercised the presidency of the 
re-organized German Confederation, and joined the Holy Alliance. Her state- 
man, Prince Metternich, stifled every constitutional movement, and repressed 
every aspiration toward nationality of the peoples composing the heterogeneous 
Austrian domains. Through this policy revolutions in Lombardy and Hungary 
were provoked, which, however, were quelled, Russia aiding in the subjugation 
of Hungary. The war with Prussia ended with the Austrian defeat at Sadowa 
(Konigsgratz, 1866), and Austria had to cede Venetia to Italy; the war with Italy 
(1859) with the loss of Lombardy. The relations of Austria and Hungary were 
then settled, and in June, 1867, Francis Joseph I was crowned King of Hungary. 
The dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary thus came into being. During the last 
half century Austrian statesmen have devoted their attention mainly to the 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 



11 



commercial development of their country, while earnestly endeavoring to fuse 
into one nation the numerous peoples grouped within the boundaries of the 
Dual Monarchy. 

According to the Ausgleich (or Compromise) made in 1867, Austria and 
Hungary have each a separate constitution and a separate parliament, but con- 
federate for imperial purposes (army, navy and finance affairs) and for the 
conduct of foreign affairs. Legislative power relating to common affairs (includ- 
ing the voting of money) is exercised by the Parliaments of both states, but the 
duty of examining the requirements of the common services is entrusted to the 
Delegations, of which there are two. The members of the Delegations are ap- 
pointed for one year, and are summoned annually by the emperor alternately at 
Vienna and Budapest. 

The constitution of Hungary dates from about 891, when the Magyars had 
possession, and the first King, St. Stephen, was crowned in 1000. The first charter 
{Bulla Aurea), granted in 1222 by King Andrew II, defined the government 
as an aristocratic monarchy. After having been repeatedly suspended and even 
forfeited (1849), the Hungarian Constitution was restored in 1867. 

Austria has an area of 115,882 sq. miles and a population of 28,995,844. The 
population is divided among Germans (about 9,000,000), Bohemians (6,000,000), 
Poles (4,000,000), Ruthenians (3,000,000), Slovenes (1,000,000), Serbs and Croa- 
tians (800,000), Italians and Ladin (800,000), Roumanians (300,000), Magyars 
(10,000) and Greeks, French, etc. Half the population is engaged in agriculture, 
and about 200,000 in mining. 

Hungary includes an area of 125,609 sq. miles, and has a population (includ- 
ing Croatia and Slavonia) of 21,030,000. The population is divided among 
Magyars (about 9,000,000), Germans (2,000,000), Slovaks (2,000,000), Rouma- 
nians (3,000,000), Croatians (1,000,000), Serbs and various foreign residents. 
68.4 per cent, of the people are engaged in agriculture ; 12.8 per cent, in manu- 
facturing, and mining employs about 80,000. The exports from Austria-Hungary 
in 1913 amounted to $575,625,000, and the imports to $707,065,000. 

Liechtenstein, a principality between Austrian Tyrol and the Rhine (area, 
65 sq. miles ; population, 9,500) is administered directly from Vienna. 

Bosnia-Herzegovina (area, 19,768 sq. miles; population 1,962,411) is admin- 
istered by Austria-Hungary, having been formally annexed to the Empire in 
1908. 




DRAGOONS 



12 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




COUNT von BERCHTHOLD 

AUSTRIAN-HUNGARIAN 

FOREIGN MINISTER 




BARON KONRAD von 

HOTZENDORF, CHIEF 

OF THE AUSTRIAN 

STAFF 






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• 


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■ 



GENERAL RITTER VON KROBAT- ADMIRAL VON HAUS, INSPECTOR 
KIN, MINISTER OF WAR OF THE NAVY 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 



13 




HUSSARS 



THE ARMY 



The Landsknecht infantry was the mainstay of the imperial armies in the 
1 6th century. Rudolph II formed a standing force about 1600, but relied 
upon the enlistment system for the bulk of his armies. The Thirty Years' 
Wars (1618-1648) produced the permanence of service which led to the rise 
of standing armies, and at its close Austria had 19 infantry, 6 cuirassier and 1 
dragoon regiments. Wallenstein was the first to raise a distinctly imperial army 
owing no duty but to the sovereign. 

The wars of Austria against France and the Turks, together with the two 
Turkish Wars and the three great struggles against Frederick the Great, led to a 
continuous increase in her army and the long period of active service caused the 
development of its organization. Thanks to this training Austria could oppose 
the French Revolutionary forces (1792) as their most formidable enemy, and 
prove its efficiency in such a battle as that of Neerwinden (1793). But after 
Napoleon's victories, the army lost confidence in itself, as well as its leaders, 
and in the whole system under which it was trained. This old system was, 
however, abolished after 1805, and a new one was reconstructed on French lines 
by Archduke Charles. Although the re-organization was not yet completed, 
Austria entered the War of Liberation with well-drilled armies exceedingly 
greater in numbers than those of the Wars of the Revolution. 



14 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




FIFTY YEARS AGO: FIELD-MARSHAL AND HIS STAFF 




CAVALRY IN NAPOLEON'S TIME 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 



15 




INFANTRY AND JAGER 



After the fall of Napoleon, Austria's hold on Italy necessitated the main- 
tenance of a large army of occupation. This army, particularly its cavalry, was 
admittedly the best in Europe. Following that time (1845-1850) the army was 
employed in dynastic wars, and the conscription was modified by substitution. 
When the war of 1859 resulted unfavorably, the army lost confidence as it had 
done in 1805. The result of the war and of the constitutional changes of this 
time was the readoption of the principles of 1806-13, the substitution of con- 
scription and long service by universal service for 3 years, and a thorough 
reform in the methods of command and staff work. University graduates serve 
only one year, and usually form the officers of the reserve force. 

Austria-Hungary maintains a common army (K. und K.) which is derived 
from both kingdoms, and which has a common organization. The special or 
second line armies (K. K.) are the Landwehr in Austria and the Honved in 
Hungary, which are fully organized in time of peace, and are on a national 
basis, and the Landsturm (composed of older men). Certain parts of the Em- 
pire (as in Bosnia-Herzegovina) maintain special recruiting service and enlist 
independent troops under their own regulations. On July 1, 1912, a law was 
passed providing for re-organization increase in the army. Military service is 
compulsory from the age of 21 to 42, and the soldier spends 2 years 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 



17 




UHLAN 

in the active army (3 in the cavalry and artillery), 10 in the reserve and 9 in the 
Landsturm. The Empire is divided into 16 army corps, as follows : 

K. und K. K. K. Honved 

Infantry regiments 102 37 32 

Bosnia Herzegovina 4 

Tyrolean Chasseurs 4 

Feldjagerbatallions 26 

Landesschiitzen 3 

Total 7l36~~ 40 ~Tl 

Cavalry regiments 

Uhlans 11 6 

Hussars 16 10 

Dragoons 15 

Tyrolean , 1 

Dalmatian 1 

Total r42~ 8 "TO 

Artillery regiments 

Field 92 ) in* i< o 

Fortress 14 I 106 16 2 

Divisions § 

Total 7l~06~~ 16 . 10 



18 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




EIGHTEENTH CENTURY SOLDIERS 

The peace strength of the army, as organized in 1913, is: Common army, 
339,366; Austrian Landwehr, 50,544; Hungarian Honved, 38,529; Bosnian- 
Herzegovina troops, 6,618. The war strength as provided for by the law of 
1913 is: Common army, 1,360,000; Austrian Landwehr, 240,000; Honved, 
220,000; total, 1,820,000. This total could be increased to well over 3,000,000 
by utilizing all classes of the Landsturm, including trained and untrained men. 
Austria-Hungary's expenditure for armament during 1913-14 amounted to 
$172,939,606. 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 



21 




ARTILLERY: AN 8 CENTIMETRE FIELD PIECE 



ENGINEERS BUILD- 
ING A BRIDGE FOR 
TRANSPORT OF 
TROOPS 





HIS MAJESTY'S 
LIFE GUARDS 







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AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 



23 




BOSNIAN HERZEGOVINAN INFANTRY 




INFANTRY ON PARADE 




ARTILLERY: 10 CENTIMETRE HOWITZERS 



24 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




WINTER MANOEUVRES OF THE INFANTRY 












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THE EMPEROR AND GENERAL STAFF 




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A REST AFTER MANOEUVRING 




HUSSAR OFFICERS 



28 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




BLESSING THE SWORDS 



Before the cadets are promoted to the rank of officers in the army, the chaplain 
of the Military Academy extends to them the oath of allegiance to God and Kaiser, 
and they solemnly pledge themselves to the service of the Fatherland. 




1. Order of the Golden Fleece. 2. Order of the Star. 3. Cross of Honor, 
4. Order of St. Stephen. 5. Order of Elizabeth Theresa. 6. Order of Maria Theresa. 
7. Order of the Iron Crown. 8. Teutonic Order. 9. Iron Crown and Cross. 10. Order 
of Leopold. 11. Order of Elizabeth. 



THE NAVY 




Although of all the great European 
powers Austria has the shortest coastline, 
consisting of the eastern shore of the Adri- 
atic, its navy is in power of its fighting 
ships 7th in rank among the navies of the 
world. It was organized chiefly for coast 
defence, and for many years no important 
new vessels were added. In 1893 the ar- 
mored cruiser Kaiserin Maria Theresa was 
launched, and three small battleships were 
commenced. Since then the annual builo 
mg programme has steadily increased. As 
re-organized in 1901, the navy department 
forms an autonomous section in the minis- 
try of war, under the control of a vice 
admiral ; An Admiral is inspector-in-chief of 
the fleet and entire navy and represents the 



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30 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




FIRST CLASS CRUISER "ADMIRAL SPAUN" 



minister of war in the discussions of the navy budget. Enlistment is by conscrip- 
tion for a term of 4 years ; university graduates serve only one year and usually 
become officers of the reserve force. 

In addition to the coast defence, there is a flotilla of monitors in the Danube. 
The fleet, which is maintained in a high state of efficiency, has a strength of: 

Effective end of 
1913 1914 

Dreadnoughts 2 

Pre-dreadnoughts 12 12 

Armored cruisers 3 3 

Cruisers 9 11 

Torpedo gunboats 7 

Gunboats for the Danube 6 8 

Torpedo boats for the Danube 8 8 

Destroyers 18 18 

Torpedo boats 58 63 

Submarines 6 6 

Hydroplanes 22 50 

The personnel of the navy consists of: 907 officers and cadets; 1,513 
mechanics, engineers, etc. ; about 18,000 sailors ; the grand total, including reserves, 
amounts to 37,000. There are naval air services of hydro-aeroplanes at Pola, 
Sebenico and Cattaro. The navy expenditure for 1913-14 amounted to $33,002,- 
755, an increase of 143.2 per cent over that of 1907-08. 




CRUISER "MARIA THERESA" 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 



31 




THE LATE ARCHDUKE FRANCIS FERDINAND ON BOARD THE 

FLAGSHIP 




BATTLESHIP "BUDAPEST" 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 



33 




BATTLESHIP "ERZEHERZOG 
FRANCIS FERDINAND" 




SUBMARINE "V 5" 



MONITOR OF THE 
DANUBE FLEET 





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BATTLESHIP "HAPSBURG" 




BATTLESHIP "ERZEHERZOG CARL' 



36 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




SUBMARINE "U 3" 




COAST TORPEDO BOAT "NO. 13" 




AVIATOR CORPS 



38 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




OFFICERS 




UNDER OFFICERS AND MARINES 




The 
British Empire 




GEORGE V 




KING GEORGE AND QUEEN MARY 



44 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 



GEORGE V 
Prince George Frederick Ernest Albert, the second son of King Edward VII 
and Queen Alexandra, was born on June 3, 1865. He entered the navy when 
twelve years old, and was successively promoted to the ranks of midshipman 
(1883), lieutenant (1885), and commander (1891). On the death of the Duke 
of Clarence (1892) he became heir to the throne, and took his seat in the House 
of Lords as Duke of York. His marriage was celebrated on July 6, 1893, to 
Princess Victoria Mary of Teck, known as Princess May, who had been be- 
trothed to the Duke of Clarence. In 1901 he attained the rank of rear admiral 
and was appointed Colonel-in-chief of the Royal Marine Forces. On the acces- 
sion of Edward VII, Prince George left the navy and assumed certain duties 
of state. He succeeded to the throne on May 6, 1910. Through his influence 
the Accession Act of 1910 was passed, which omitted from the accession declara- 




THE PRINCE OF WALES 

tion the phrases long resented by Catholics. During his visit to India (Dec, 
1911), important changes were made in the Indian administrative system, and 
the capital was transferred from Calcutta to Delhi. 



ENGLAND 



45 




THE LATE KING EDWARD VII AND QUEEN ALEXANDRA 

Their majesties have six children: Prince Edward Albert (born on June 
23, 1894), the heir apparent, is now serving at the front with his regiment; Prince 
Albert Frederick (born Dec. 14, 1895), is serving with the fleet in the North Sea; 
Princess Mary, the only daughter (born April 25, 1897) ; Prince Henry William 
(born March 31, 1900) ; Prince George Edward (born Dec. 20, 1912) ; and 
Prince John Charles (born July 12, 1905). 

KING EDWARD 

While Prince of Wales, King Edward became very popular with his peo- 
ple, and won a reputation as a diplomat and peacemaker. At his accession, he 
directed his efforts to maintain the existing peace of Europe and by advantageous 
alliances sought to strengthen the foreign relations of his country. He greatly 
admired the French, spending much of his time at Paris, and to his personal ef- 
forts were due the cordial relations between England and France and the for- 
mation of the Triple Entente. 



46 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




GEORGE V AND THE LATE EDWARD VII 





PRINCESS MARY 




PRINCE ALBERT FREDERICK 



PRINCE HENRY WILLIAM 



* 




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HOUSE OF GUELPH 




About the middle of the 5th century the 
name Weph or Guelph, first occurs, such be- 
ing the title of the leader of the Scyrri, a 
Gothic tribe, which was then in possession of 
Xoricum (ancient Rboetia). In 590 a Guelph 
commanded the Boiararii under Childebert, 
King of the Franks, but for a century after- 
wards the name occurs chiefly among the 
Bavarian nation, the nobles of Lombardy and 
the court of France. 

Guelph IV married Irmitrude, daughter 
of Frederick of Luxemburg, and niece of 
Cunigonde, Empress of Henry II. His son re- 
ceived from Emperor Henry III the Duchy 
of Carinthia and the Marquisate of Verona, 
but with him the male line died out. His 
nephew became the founder of the younger 
line. Henry the Black succeeded to the 
GEORGE I Guelph possessions in 1120, and by his mar- 

riage with Wufilda, eldest daughter of the 
Magnus of Saxony, obtained half of the latter's hereditary dominions, including 
Luneburg. His son, Henry the Proud, married the daughter of the Emperor 
Lothair, thereby obtaining lands in Brunswick and the Duchy of Saxony. The 
consequent power brought the Guelphs into rivalry with the Hohenstaufens and 
led to the long strife with the Ghibellines. 

Henry the Lion lost the Duchies of Bavaria and Saxony in 1180, and Welf 
VI gave his Suabian and Italian lands to the Emperor Henry VI. Otto only 
had left the lands inherited from Lothair, and in 1235 these lands became the 
Duchy of Brunswick, and Otto received the title of Duke of Brunswick and 
Luneburg. Of the Brunswick Guelphs, the Luneburg line, in the person of 
George, joined the Protestant cause, and his son, Christian Louis, received the 
Duchy of Luneburg, and his second son, George William, the principality of 
Calemberg, which was then formed into a duchy. George William took up his 
residence in the capital of this province and assumed the title of Duke of Han- 
over. His brother, Ernest Augustus, eventually succeeded him and married 
Sophia, daughter of the Elector Palatine and Elizabeth Stuart, daughter of 
James I of England. By the Act of Settlement (1701) the English throne was 
to go to the Electress Sophia, but as she died shortly before Queen Anne, it went 
instead to her son George Louis, who became King George I of Great Britain 
and Ireland. George V is his great-great-great-great-grandson. 




MONARCHS OF THE HOUSES OF STUART AND GUELPH 



ENGLAND 



49 



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HISTORY 

The authentic history of England begins with the invasion of Julius Caesar 
(54 B. C), and the country was known to the Romans as Britannia. The coun- 
try was first a Roman colony, and after being abandoned by the Romans (410) 
was invaded by the Jutes, Angles and Saxons. During the Anglo-Saxon period, 
England became Christian. Egbert of Wessex united the various kingdoms and 
assumed (827) the title of King of England, but the country was divided between 
Alfred and the Danes in 878 (Treaty of Wedmore), only to be consolidated again 
in the 10th century. About 1000 the Danes under Sweyn invaded England, and 
Canute the Dane and his sons were rulers during 1016-42. With the battle of 
Hastings ( 1066) and the coming of the Normans, England was conquered for the 
last time. During the Norman period, feudalism was established, the language 
was modified, and art and literature began. 

In 1215 the barons wrung from King John .the famous Magna Charta, the- 
foundation of English liberty, and Parliamentary government began about 1264. 
The claims of Edward III to the French throne started the Hundred Years' War 
(1337-1453), which ended by the expulsion of the English from France. From 
1453 to 1485, England was torn by the Wars of the Roses, or the strife between 



50 THE EUROPEAN WAR 



the houses of Lancaster and York, which was ended by the accession of the 
Tudors to the throne. During the Tudor Period England became very pros- 
perous, and the reign of Elizabeth saw the birth of her greatest literary geniuses, 
Spenser, Bacon, Shakespeare, Marlowe, Fletcher, Beaumont, etc. Under the 
Stuarts (1603-1714) the foundation of the colonial empire was laid; and the civil 
war was waged between Charles I and the Parliament (1642-48) which resulted 
in the establishment of the commonwealth under Cromwell (1642-48). They also 
saw the Restoration of the Monarchy (1660), the Revolution of 1688, the acces- 
sion of William of Orange and Mary (1689), the union with Scotland (1707), 
and the passing of the Act of Settlement (1701), which secured the crown for 
the Hanoverian dynasty (George I, 1714). The Hanoverian period is marked 
by long wars against France, the acquisition of India and Canada, the loss of 
the United States (1783), union with Ireland (1801), the great wars against 
Napoleon I, culminating in the battle of Waterloo (1815), and the abolition of 
slavery (1833). Queen Victoria's reign (1837-1901) saw the Crimean War 
1854-56), Chinese Wars (1856-58 and 1860), Indian mutiny (1857-58), Trans- 
vaal War (1881), occupation of Egypt and the Soudan (1882-85), and the Boer 
War (1899-1902). To Edward VII (1901-10) is due the Triple Entente, between 
England, France and Russia, which was formed to offset the Triple Alliance 
between Germany, Austria and Italy. 

The United Kingdom comprises England, Ireland and Scotland and Wales, 
and embraces an area of 121,090 sq. miles, with a population of 45,365,599. Eng- 
land is the first maritime power in the world, and also ranks first in commerce 
and industry on account of the richness of her soil, the extent and variety of her 
manufactures and her immense colonies. The great industries are mining (which 
■employs 972,220 persons), cotton and textile factories (employing 1,029,000, of 
whom 600,000 work at cotton spinning) and metal manufactures (steel, iron 
and silver). According to the 1913-1914 reports the export values amounted to 
$4,080,000,000 (of which 73.6 per cent was foreign and 26.4 per cent Inter-im- 
perial), and the imports to $5,120,000,000. 

The colonies, which are a great source of English wealth, include: 
Asia: India (1767-1858; 1,803,657 sq. mi.; pop. 315,156,396), Ceylon (1795; 

25,331 sq. mi. ; pop. 3,592,833), Borneo (1898; 31,106 sq. mi. ; pop. 208,183), 

Cyprus (1878; 3,584 sq. mi.; pop. 282,388), Aden (1905; 75 sq. mi.; pop. 

46,165), the key to the Persian Gulf, and Hong Kong (1841; 376 sq. mi.: 

pop. 366,145). 
Africa: Union of South Africa (1909; 473,100 sq. mi. ; pop. 5,973,394), British 

East Africa (1905 ; 246,822 sq. mi. ; pop. 4,038,000), and British West Africa 

(1861-1900; 336,080 sq. mi. ; pop. 17,100,000) ; England also exercises a pro- 
tectorate over Egypt. 
America: The Dominion of Canada (1763-1867; 3,603,900 sq. mi.; pop. 7,206,- 

643), Newfoundland (1583-1783 ; 42,734 sq. mi.; pop. 241,172), West Indies 

( 1655 ; 90,000 sq. mi. ; pop. 5,000,000) . 
Australasia: Commonwealth of Australia (1788-1828; 2,974,581 sq. mi.; pop. 

4,836,625), New Zealand (1840; 104,760 sq. mi.; pop. 1,100,000), and 

Western Pacific (about 24,000 sq. mi.; pop. 211,000). 
Europe: Gibraltar (1704; 2 sq. mi. ; pop. 20,000), the key to the Mediterranean; 

Malta (1814; 120 sq. mi.; pop. 211,000). 

The British Constitution provides for an executive power vested in the sov- 
ereign and his ministers and a legislative power vested in Parliament, which is 
composed of the House of Lords (whose members hold office by hereditary 
right or are appointed by the sovereign) and the House of Commons (the mem- 
bers of which are elected by the people V 



ENGLAND 



51 




EARL KITCHENER OF KHARTOUM, WAR MINISTER 




RIGHT HONORABLE WINSTON CHURCHILL, FIRST LORD OF THE 

ADMIRALTY 




M^^JMT^M^^^^^MWW MWti^^M 




THE ARMY 




Until the Norman Conquest the armed force of 
England was essentially a national militia, every free- 
man having to bear arms either to defend the country 
or to maintain order. The men at first fought on foot; 
then as mailed horsemen, and the Conquerer introduced: 
the system of tenure by knight service. According to 
this system, William granted lands to the barons in re- 
turn for their guarantees to supply him with a "consta- 
bularia," or a body of ten knights, or a part of a con- 
stabularia. These knights had to serve, with horse and 
arms at their own expense, 40 days each year. The 
barons then got their tenants to serve as knights in 
return for land, or if they could not supply the knights, 
the barons paid the king an equivalent in money, 
"scutage," with which he hired mercenaries. From the 
pay-rolls found during the siege of Calais (1346), it is 
known that all ranks from the Prince downwards were paid, the funds being 
provided partly from the royal revenues, by grants from Parliament, and from 
fines. The soldiers' contract usually ended with the war. ' 

In the struggle between Cromwell and the King, the influence of Cromwell's 
own well-trained troops paved the way for a complete army re-organization,, 
which was given the name of the "New Model." This new army, however, was* 
disbanded on the restoration of the Monarchy (1660) after it had enforced the 
execution of King Charles I, dissolved Parliament and governed England for 
some years. There remained of it only Monk's regiment of foot, the Coldstream 
Guards of the Army of to-day. Owing to the jealousy of Parliament no serious- 
attempt was made to maintain a large army until 1702, when in the war of the 
Spanish Succession, an army of 200,000, not wholly British, however, fought 
under Marlborough, and won the battles of Blenheim (1704), Ramillies (1706),, 
Oudenarde (1708), and Malplaquet (1709). After the Peace of Utrecht (1714), 
the force was again reduced, and from this time the strength of the standing army 
has been determined by the annual votes of Parliament. 




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THE EUROPEAN WAR 




PRINCE OF WALES' OWN YORKSHIRE REGIMENT 

The fame won during the latter part of the Seven Years' War was coun- 
teracted by the defeat in America and by the unsuccessful efforts against the 
French Revolutionary troops ; the corrupt condition of the home administration 
was changed with the appointment (1798) of Frederick Augustus, Duke of York, 
as commander-in-chief. He raised the army to a high standard of efficiency, 
and prepared the way for the successes of the Peninsular War, culminating in 
Waterloo, from which England emerged with the reputation of the most solidly 
organized and finest army in Europe. 

After this war the former peace effective of 20,000 men was increased to 
80,000, and a uniform drill was introduced and perfected. In 1847 life enlist- 



56 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




wallers : '■*&'«» Private 

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ROYAL SCOTS FUSILIERS 

merit was replaced by the Limited Service Act, which provided for enlistments 
of from ten to twelve years, with power to re-engage to complete twenty-one. 
The army did not see any special service until the Crimean War in 1854, from 
which it came out victorious. Profiting, however, by the severe lessons learned 
during this war, England revised the whole system of administration; the minor 
departments were absorbed and the whole entrusted to chiefs, one at the War 
Office and one at the Horse Guards (in 1870 these two offices were combined) ; 
the food and general treatment of the soldiers were improved, their pay in- 
creased, and recreation rooms and libraries were provided for them. 




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58 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




NORTHUMBERLAND FUSILIERS 



As a consequence of the Boer War, successive schemes were undertaken by 
the various war ministers, culminating in Secretary of War Haldane's "terri- 
torial" scheme (1908). Under this system the country was divided into districts, 
which were again divided and subdivided as necessary. Each unit recruits, and 
is in peace usually stationed in its own area ; the artillery, cavalry and special 
arms are recruited for the corps throughout the whole allotted area, and are 
stationed at various points within the area. Military service is voluntary, and 
the maintenance of the standing army depends upon the Army Bill which is 



ENGLAND 



59 




passed annually by the House of Commons. Parliament also at each session 
passes an act empowering the Crown to take the necessary steps to maintain 
discipline. 

Through the organization effected under the special Act of 1907, the British 
army consists of the "regular" and "territorial" armies. The regular comprises 
the permanently embodied troops and the army reserves, about half of the force 
being always abroad in India and the Crown colonies. In this branch enlist- 
ments are for twelve years, with the possibility of extension to twenty-one years 
for a life pension. Color service in the infantry and artillery is for six, seven 
and nine years, with six, five, or three years in reserve ; in the cavalry enlistment 
is for eight years, with four in the reserve, enlistments being also made for three 
years, but solely for reserve forming purposes. Under the Re- organization Act 
the militia, as such, was abolished, and of the 124 militia battalions formerly ex- 
isting, 74 were constituted reserve battalions of the regular army, while the militia 
artillery became reserve field artillery. Members of these bodies are partially 
trained in time of peace, and are available either for transfer to the army or for 
service abroad in time of war. 

The territorial army (composed of 14 divisions and cavalry brigades) in 
organization is similar to the regular army. Recruitment is voluntary, and the 
period of enlistment is for four years, with the option of continued engagements 




FOLLOWING THE PIPES 
THE SCOTS GUARDS MARCHING 



60 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




for periods of four years between the ages of 27 and 40. Annual training consists 

of from 8 to 15 days in camp, and men receive pay while on duty at the same 

rate as in the regular army. In case of mobilization, the territorial army would 

train for six months, and would then have the duty of repelling the invasion, 

although 20,000 officers and men (1914) have accepted liability for service abroad 

in war. By its last (1914) reports its strength was 9,650 officers and 260,404 men. 
The following table shows the number of officers and men on the regimental 

establishments of the army, army reserve, special reserves and territorial forces: 

Establishments* Effective 

1913-1914 1912-1913 Jan. 1, 1913 

Regular forces (Regimental), Home and Co- 
lonial (including regular establishment of 
special reserves) 167,868 

Colonial and Native Indian Corps 8,765 

Army Reserve 145,000 

Special Reserves (excluding regular estab- 
lishment) 78,714 

Militia, U. K.** 

Militia, Reserve Division** 90 

Militia, Channel Islands 3,166 

Militia, Malta and Bermuda and Bermuda 

Volunteers 2,894 

Territorial Force 315,438 

Isle of Man Volunteers 126 

Officers and Training Corps (Officers and 

Permanent Staff) 1,009 

Total Home and Colonial Establishments... 723,160 

Regular Forces (Regimental) on Indian Es- 
tablishment 



168,282 

8,871 

139,000 

89,913 

150 
3,166 

2,894 

316,307 

126 

1.008 
729,717 



162,251 

8,694 

141,898 

61,048 

636 

94 

2,928 

3,770 

265,867 
115 

791 

647,092 



75,897 



/o. 



77,097 
724,189 



Total 799,057 805,603 

* Exclusive of number voted to cover regimental fluctuations. 
** Force dying out. 

Great Britain's expenditure for armament for 1913-1914 amounted to $390,- 
528,112, and is the largest in proportion to the population, being $8.50 per capita. 





FIELD MANOEUVRES 



62 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 





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SOLDIERS CROSSING A RIVER 



ENGLAND 



63 




FIELD MANOEUVRES 



64 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




A BRITISH INSTITUTION: BOY SCOUTS, ORGANIZED B^ GENERAL 
BADEN-POWELL DURING THE SOUTH AFRICAN WAR 



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SUPPLY TRAIN 



ENGLAND 



65 




1. ORDER OF ST. PATRICK. 5. CROWN OF INDIA 

2. ORDER OF CHARDON. 6. ST. MICHAEL AND GEORGE. 

3. GREAT ORDER OF THE GARTER. 7. EMPEROR OF INDIA. 

4. STAR OF INDIA. 8. ORDER OF THE GARTER. 

9. ORDER OF THE BATH 










THE NAVY 



To defend themselves against 
the Norse invasions of the 9th cen- 
tury, the English people founded a 
national organization which called 
upon each shire to supply a certain 
number of ships. In addition to 
these, Alfred the Great and his suc- 
cessors had ships of their own, and 
maintained them out of the royal rev- 
enues. To these were added in the 
nth century the feudal "array," or 
the services rendered by the seaport 
towns in return for ' special fran- 
chises and privileges granted them. 
The Norman Conquest made no fun- 
damental change. In the reign of 
Henry III (1216-72) the navy con- 
sisted of 57 ships and 1,197 men and 
boys, who were paid partly by the 
king and partly by the different 
town's. 

The foundation of the modern 
navy really dates from the reign of 
King John, who had 50 galleys (long 
ships of war) in various ports. In 
1360 Sir John Beauchamp was 
placed in charge of the navy, and 
given the title of admiral, and this 
office became a permanent one in 
1406 when John Beaufort was ap- 
pointed to it. The crews consisted 
of mariners to navigate the ships and soldiers to fight, and all vessels were, of 
course, sailing ones. During the reigns of Edward III and Richard II (1377- 
1399) the navy declined, and the coast was ravaged by the French 
and their allies; but except during these periods the navy of the 
Middle Ages was more than a match for its enemies, as proved by the vic- 
tories over Philip Augustus in 1213, Eustace the Monk in 1217 off Dover, 




THE PRE-DREADNOUGHT 
"KING EDWARD VII" 



ENGLAND 



67 




MERCANTILE „ „ e^j 

ENSIGN Ye//t "*'m 

(RED ENSIGN) 



NAVAL FLAGS 



the French fleet at Sluys in 1340, and the Spanish off Winchelsea in 1350. To 
the navy was due the long occupation of Calais by the English. 

Under the Tudors (1485-1603) the navy steadily developed, and Henry VII 
built many ships. Henry VIII organized the navy office, which was the adminis- 
trative machinery until 1832. Under the Stuarts the navy became a national 
force, maintained solely by Parliament. Corruption, however, set in, and in 
1618 the committee appointed to investigate undertook to reconstruct the navy at 
an annual cost of £30,000. This promise was fulfilled in 1624. In 1688 the navy 




BATTLE PRACTICE, FIRING AT A TARGET NINE MILES AWAY 



68 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




DREADNOUGHT "COLOSSUS" 



comprised 173 ships of 101,892 tons, carrying when in commission 42,003 men, 
and armed with 6,930 guns. 

After the Revolution of 1688 the king ceased to direct the navy, and it was 
governed by a parliamentary committee known as the commission for discharg- 
ing the office of lord high admiral. The crews were obtained partly by voluntary 
enlistment and partly by impressment, and when these resources failed, recourse 
was had to the jails. The mismanagement of the fleet in the Spanish War (1739) 
led to a drastic reform in the navy, which bore fruit before the close of the war. 







jlS£JBIBi^_ 



V 



DREADNOUGHT "HERCULES" 



ENGLAND 



69 




DEFYING 
THE 
DARK 



In 1814 the fleet consisted of 900 vessels manned by 146,000 men. After the 
Napoleonic wars the force was considerably reduced. The administration up 
to 1832 was generally corrupt. But in that year Sir James Graham combined 
the admiralty and naval offices into one, consisting of five departments ; and from 
this dates the modern navy organization. The board of admiralty consists of a 
first lord who is always a member of the Cabinet, and who directs and super- 
vises all naval affairs; under him are four naval and one civil lords 

The British fleet shows to-day a strength of: 27 dreadnoughts ; ;4o battle- 
ships; 10 battle cruisers; 53 armored cruisers ; 94 light cruisers ; 195 destroyers ; 
49 torpedo boats; and 85 submarines. The ships being built (1914) are: 14 
dreadnoughts; 20 cruisers; and 44 destroyers. The navy expenditure for 191o- 
1914 amounted to $231,546,500, an increase of 48 per cent over that of 1907- 
1908. The air fleet includes : 6 dirigibles and 136 aeroplanes, and 3 dirigibles are 

beU1 The" Personnel includes: officers, seamen and boys, 115,052; coast-guards, 
3 130; marines, 18,235; officers, men and boys under training or otherwise em- 
ployed on particular service, 9,583; officers on salary or half pay, 420 The 
Naval Reserve includes 21,523; the Home Fleet Reserve, 28,764; the Royal 
Naval Volunteer Reserve, 4,200; and pensioners (seamen and marines), 8,023. 
The grand total, active and reserve, amounts to: 208,929, and shows an increase 
of 11,138 over the figures of 1912-1913. 



SEARCHLIGHTS 

AT 

WORK 





GUARDIAN OF THE BRITISH ISLES 




THE BRITISH FLEET 



72 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




H. M. BATTLESHIP "ALBEMARLE" 




H. M. CRUISER "MAGNIFICENT" 




H. M. CRUISER "TERRIBLE" 



74 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 



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H. M. DESTROYER "ARTEL" 




H. M. TORPEDO BOAT "85' 




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NAVY UNIFORMS 



76 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




SUBMARINE "A E 2" 




H. M. SUBMARINE "D 78' 




H. M. SUBMARINE "A 14' 




H. M. SUBMARINE "C 65" 



ENGLAND 



77 




H. M. CRUISER "BIRMINGHAM" 




FLOATING DOCK 




THE FLEET ANCHORED OFF SPITHEAD 




PHASES OF NAVAL ACTIVITY 



ENGLAND 



79 




DEFENSE AGAINST ATTACKS 
BY SEA AND AIR 




THE AIR FLEET: BRITISH DIRIGIBLES 




THE AIR FLEET: HYDROPLANE 



80 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




A NEW WEAPON: 



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RAYMOND POINCARfi 
President of France 




THE PRESIDENT EXAMINING A SIEGE GUN 



THE PRESIDENT 



M. Raymond Poincare was born on August 20, 1860, at Bar-le-Duc (Meuse). 
He studied law at Paris, served as Secretary to the Minister of Agriculture, and 
entered politics in 1887, when he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies. He 
was Minister of Public Instruction in 1893 and again in 1895, and was Finance 
Minister in 1894 and again in 1896. He entered the Senate in 1903, and on the 
fall of the Caillaux Cabinet he accepted the premiership (January, 1912), which 
he retained until his election as president on January 17, 1913. His election 
was considered throughout France a triumph for nationalism as M. Poincare 
is well known as an advocate of electoral reform and proportional representation. 
In recognition of his merits, he was elected a member of the French Academy 
(1909). Of his works perhaps the most well known is Idees Contemporaines. 
He is a man of high honor and exceptional ability. The enthusiastic reception 
accorded to him by the English nation during his visit to King George in 1913, 
was regarded as a proof of the popularity of the Triple Entent. 



86 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 



M. DELCASSE 
War Minister 





M. VIVIANI 
Premier 





GENERAL JOFFRfi 
Commander-in-Chief of the Army 



ADMIRAL BOUfi DE LAPEYRfiRE 
Commander-in-Chief of the Fleet 




CIVIL ORDER OF MERIT ORDER OF MENTANA LEGION OF HONOR 







HISTORY 



Before the Roman conquest, France was 
divided among three peoples, the Gauls, the 
Iberians and the Greeks, who had developed a 
nourishing and advanced civilization. The 
first Roman incursions took place about 154 
B. C. and continued until 52 B. C., when the 
country as far as the Rhine and the Channel 
was conquered by Julius Caesar and made a 
Roman province. It was then known as Gaul. 
During the fifth century, A. D., various bar- 
barian tribes invaded the prcvince. The Visi- 
goths settled in the south, the Burgundians in 
the east, and in the northeast the Salian Franks 
(from whom the name France is derived), a 
Gothic tribe which had settled along the 
Scheldt, the Meuse and the Rhine. The 
Franks gradually overcame the Gallo-Roman^ 
and their King, Clovis, at the battle of Sois- 
sons (486) succeeded in putting an end to the 
Roman domination of 6 centuries. He ex- 
tended his authority from the Rhine to the 
Rhone and from the Pyrenees to the Channel, 
established his residence at Paris, converted his 
subjects to Christianity, and founded the Mero- 
vingian dynasty. At his death the kingdom was divided among his four sons, and 
there was a state of continual warfare until Dagobert I (638) assumed the 
title of King of the Franks and re-established order. His successors left all con- 
duct of affairs to the "mayors of the palace," against whose tyrannical rule the no- 
bles under Pepin of Heristal, one of the mayors, revolted. Pepm assumed com- 
plete control, though leaving the empty title of King to Thierry III. He re-estab- 
lished the ancient assemblies, and gave a seat in them to the bishops and clergy. 
His son, Charles Martel, in a series of brilliant victories, defeated the Frisians, 
Germans Bretons and Aquitanians, adding considerable territory to the kingdom, 
and in the battle of Tours (732) drove the Saracens out of France. With his son 
Pepin the Short, the rule of the "rois faineants" came to an end .Childenc 111 
was confined in a monastery, and Pepin ascended the throne (752). 1 hough 
he accomplished much, his fame is overshadowed by the greater gory of his son 
Charlemagne, who began the Carlovingian dynasty. He enlarged his kingdom, 
taking Aix-la-Chapelle for his capital, founded schools, encouraged art ad- 
vanced civilization in every way, and re-established the Roman Empire being 
crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III in 800. By the treaty of Verdun (843), his 




THE EUROPEAN WAR 



empire was divided among his three sons, Louis receiving the lands east of the 
Rhine (Deutschland, Germany), Lothair receiving Italy and the title of emperor, 
and Charles the lands west of the Scheldt, Meuse, Saone and Rhone, which were 
called France. 

Under the feeble Carlovingians, France was invaded by the Normans (who 
founded Normandy), feudalism was established, and the power of the nobles 
constantly increased, until Hugh Capet, one of their number, seized the throne, 
thus founding the Capetian dynasty. He was crowned at Rheims (987), and 
added to the small remaining territory of the Carlovingians Paris, Orleans and 
a part of Picardy, thus forming the "domain of the crown," to the increase of 
which, and to the augmenting of the power of the King, succeeding Capetians 
devoted themselves. 

Great progress was made under succeeding Capetian sovereigns. . Louis VI 
(1108-37) subdued the nobles, granted certain liberties to the communes, 
added much territory in the south by the marriage of his son to Eleanor of 
Aquitaine, and began the long wars with England. Philip Augustus (d. 1223), 
added Vermandois, Valais, Amiens and Artois, joined the Third Crusade, re- 
covered Normandy, Anjou, Touraine, Maine and Poitou from the English 
(battle of Bouvines, 1214), protected the cities against the nobles, surrounded 
Paris with a wall, paved the streets, constructed the Halles and the Louvre, re- 
built Notre Dame (which had been begun by Louis VII), and grouped the schools 
of Paris into a university. St. Louis IX (d. 1270), one of the greatest .of 
French kings, concluded a treaty with England, embarked on the seventh and 
eighth crusades (on the latter of which he died), and consolidated his kingdom, 
establishing peace and prosperity, advancing justice and encouraging learning. 
Philip le Bel (d. 1314), summoned the States General for the first time 
(March 28, 1302). With Charles IV (1322-28), the Capetian line died out, 
and as the States General at the time of Louis X had decided to follow the 
Salic law and exclude the female heirs, the throne went to Philip VI (nephew 
of Philip le Bel) of Valois. Under his successors, and during the Hundred 
Years' War, France declined, but thanks to Joan of Arc, in 1453, Charles VII was 
enabled to overcome the English. With renewed strength, he took up the struggle 
against the nobles, which was carried on by Louis XI (d. 1483). Charles VII 
began the Italian wars which were so full of disaster for Francis 'I. Though 
his political policy brought great trouble upon his country, Francis introduced the 
Renaissance, was a liberal patron of art and literature, created the College de 
France and made his court with the help of his sister, Marguerite, one of the 
most brilliant in Europe. 

In 1589 the Valois line died out, and the crown went to the Bourbon Henry 
of Navarre, who was descended from the sixth son of St. Louis IX. He defeated 
the League at Arques (1589) and Ivry (1590), and entered Paris in 1594 as 
Henry IV of France. Assisted by his minister Sully, he organized his kingdom, 
encouraged industry, commerce and agriculture, and founded the silk industry 
by introducing the mulberry bush. His son, Louis XIII, by the aid of Richelieu, 
prepared the way for the absolute power of Louis XIV. Under Louis XIV France 
saw the most brilliant period of her history. Powerful abroad and secure at 
home, the country entered upon unparalelled prosperity. This was also the golden 
age of her literature. Racine, Moliere, Corneille (who with Descartes, was the 
first to free the French language and thought from restrictions due to Greek and 
Latin influences), Bossuet and Fenelon are the greatest of French poets, dram- 
atists, orators and philosophers. The excesses of the Regency and the in- 
difference of Louis XV, reduced France to a state of poverty and bankruptcy 
and prepared the way for the revolution against which Louis XVI was to 



FRANCE 



89 




struggle in vain. Louis XVI tried to meet the demands of the people by 
calling the States General and yielding concessions (1789). The people, how- 
ever, feeling their power, took affairs into their own hands, and proclaimed a 
constitutional monarchy. The King and Queen were imprisoned and finally 
beheaded. The Revolution established a republic and a period of anarchy set in 
with the Reign of Terror, which though it secured success against the enemy 
abroad, finally fell, and the Directory was established. Napoleon Bonaparte 
overthrew the Directory and assumed the power. He established peace and 
order within the country and in his foreign campaigns carried the victori- 



90 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 










^Kf 



/ 



NAPOLEON 



The Consular Signature 



The Imperial Signature 



ous French armies over Europe. His ambitions aimed at an Empire and he 
had himself crowned Emperor in 1804. He gave France a code of laws, con- 
cluded a concordat with the Pope, and made France the supreme military country 
of Europe. Europe, however, formed a coalition against him, and he was defeated 
at the battle of Waterloo in 1815, when the throne passed to Louis XVIII, brother 
of Louis XVI. 

The monarchy lasted until 1848, when the Second Republic was proclaimed, 
but after the coup d' etat of 1841 the empire was again set up, with Louis Na- 
poleon on the throne. During this period France took part in the Crimean War 
(1854) and the Italian-Austrian War of 1859. Many public works were built, 
railroads were constructed, commerce and industries flourished, great progress 
in education was made, and Paris rebuilt on a magnificent scale. Louis Napo- 
leon's foreign policy led to the disastrous war of 1870, after which France was 
obliged to cede Alsace-Lorraine to Germany. The Empire was then overthrown 
and the Third Republic, which still exists, was set up with Thiers as President. 
During this period France has extended her influence and territory in South- 
eastern Asia (Chinese War of 1885), Tunis and Western Africa, and Mada- 
gascar, and has developed her army. 

France has an area of 207,218 sq. miles, and a population of 39,601,509. 
More than half of the population is employed in agriculture ; mining employs 
250,000, while 5,001,743 are employed in manufacturing. According to the 
1913-14 reports the exports amounted to $1,375,060,000 and the imports to 
$1,801,675,000. 

According to the constitution of 1871 France is a republic, governed 
by a President and a legislature, which consists of the Assembly, sitting in two 
houses: the Senate (300 members), which is indirectly elected for 9 years (one- 
third retiring every 3 years) by delegates chosen by the municipal councils and the 
Senators, Deputies, Councillors-General and District Councillors of the De- 
partments; and the Chamber of Deputies (584 members), which is elected for 
4 years, by universal suffrage. The executive power is confided fo the President, 
who is elected for 7 years by the two Houses united in National Assembly. 



FRANCE 



91 



He receives $120,000 a year, and a further allowance of $120,000 for expenses. 

He appoints the ministers, makes all civil and military appointments, declares 

war with the consent of the two houses ; but 
his every act must be countersigned by a Min- 
ister. The Conseil d' Etat, a special body 
composed of Councillors, Maitres des Requetes 
and Auditors, all appointed by the President, 
and presided over by the Minister of Justice, 
gives advice upon the administrative points, 
submitted by the government. The constitu- 
tion was revised in 1875, 1884 and 1889. 

The colonies are looked upon as being 
politically part of France, and are represented 
in the Senate by 4 senators, and in the Cham- 
ber by 10 deputies. 

The Minister of the Colonies controls the 
administration of all the colonies, but Algiers, 
being regarded as part of France, is under 
the Minister of the Interior, and Morocco and 
Tunis are under the Minister for Foreign Af- 
fairs. These colonies which are not directly 
represented in the Council of Deputies, are 
represented in the Conseil superieur de 
Colonies, which consists of colonial senators 
and deputies, colonial delegates and other 
officials appointed to it. The French colonies 
include : 




NAPOLEON III 



Africa: Morocco (protectorate since 1912; 220,000 sq. mi..; population 5,000,- 
000), Algeria (1834; 343,500 sq. mi.; pop. 750,000 Europeans and 5,000,000 
natives), Tunis (protectorate since 1882; 51,000 sq. mi.; pop. 2,000,000), 
French Somali Coast (1884; 46,000 sq. mi.; pop. 208,061), French Congo 
(1841-1911; 669,000 sq. mi.; pop. 9,000,000 of whom 1,200 are white), 
Madagascar (1895; 228,500 sq. mi.; pop. 3,500,000), Reunion (1642; 
970 sq. mi.; pop. 173,822), French West Africa, including Sahara, Senegal, 
Guinea, Ivory Coast, Dahomey, Upper Senegal-Niger, and Mauritania 
(1,478,000 sq. mi; pop. 10,465,072 of whom 9,000 are non-African). 

America: French Guiana (made penal settlement in 1853; 30,500 sq. mi.; 
pop. 49,000), Guadeloupe islands and dependencies (1815; 688 sq. mi.; pop. 
21,200), Martinique (1635; 385 sq. mi.; pop. 194,000), St. Pierre and 
Miguellon (1635; 93 sq. mi.; pop. 4,652). 

Asia: French India (1674-1815 ; 196 sq. mi. ; pop. 17,000,000) ; French Indo-China 
including Annam, Cambodia, Cochin-China, Tonking, Laos and Kwang- 
Chau-Wan, leased from China (261,690 sq. mi.; pop. 17,000,000). 

Australasia : New Caledonia and dependencies ( 1853 ; 7,650 sq. mi. ; pop. 
50,608), other islands in Oceania including Society, Leeward, Marquezas, 
Tuamotu, Moorea, etc. (1,520 sq. mi; pop. 31,000, of whom ninety per cent 
are natives). 




SOLDIERS OF HENRY IV 



THE ARMY 



After the barbarian invasions of Gaul, each man was a warrior and there 
was no separate military body. Among Charlemagne's reforms was the re- 
organization of the army and the definition of the military obligations of free 
men. The 10th and 11th centuries saw the establishment of the feudal system 
of military service in France, each lord being obliged to supply his suzerain with 
a certain number of lances. This system permitted the nobles to prey upon the 
people and led to such excesses that the people petitioned Charles VII to establish 
a definite army and by the law of November 2, 1439, the King started a 
permanent army, from the Mercenaries who had served in the Hundred Years' 
War. He added franc-archers and compagnies d' ordonnance (heavy cav- 
alry), but his successors continued to call in mercenaries and in the con- 
fusion of the long wars of Charles VII, Francis I and Henry IV, the idea 
of a permanent army was lost sight of. Henry IX and Louis XIII drafted 
the poor, vagabonds and peasants. The army consisted of regiments of horse 
and foot, each of which belonged to its colonel. Louis XIV, however, de- 




GRENADIER OF NAPOLEON 



94 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




CARABINIER (SECOND EMPIRE, 1868) 



sired to have absolute control over his armies and to this end directed his war- 
minister, Louvois, to re-organize the army. Under Louvois' reforms, the pro- 
prietary system was modified, enlistment in the rank and file was voluntary for 
4 years, and in place of the arriere-ban, a militia was raised by ballot (1688). 
Louvois founded companies of artillery, introduced the system of magazines, 
built up an excellent hospital service, opened the Hotel des Invalides in Paris as. 
a home for old soldiers, and established training schools for officers. Thus was 
founded the first real permanent royal army, which has since served as the basis 
of all succeeding French armies. This highly efficient army made France, at the 
latter end of the 17th century, the foremost military power of Europe, and al- 
though the reputation of the army suffered somewhat in the War of the Spanish 
Succession, the war ended with French victories. During the wars of 1740-63. 
corrupt administration and incompetent leaders (with few exceptions) were 
responsible for the reverses suffered, although Fonenoy was a splendid victory. 
The successes of the American War (1776-83) restored confidence, revived the 
warlike spirit, and more attention was paid to the drilling of the army. At 
the outbreak of the Revolution (1789) the royal army consisted of 224 infantry 
battalions, 7 artillery regiments, 62 cavalry regiments, totalling 173,000, capable 
of being increased to a war strength of 210,000. 

More reforms were added in the early years of the Revolution : a national 
guard was organized, promotion from the ranks was permitted, voluntary en- 
listment was established. These reforms, however, proved disastrous to 



FRANCE 



95 




DRAGOONS 

discipline and organization, and the army met with reserves in the first campaigns 
against Austria. To save the Revolution strong measures were necessary. 
Lazare Carnot was made minister of war, and compulsory conscription was 
adopted, by which an army of 1,000,000 men was raised. Carnot organized 
the" infantry into brigades and demi-brigades of 3 battalions, created arse- 
nals, and re-established military schools. The army was thoroughly trained 
and from these reforms the crude Republican forces emerged a well-disci- 
plined army, able to win for the Revolution the glorious victories of Fleurus 
(1794), Hondschoote (1794), Wattignies (1794), Wissembourg (1794), and 
Ettingen (1796). These victories, however, exhausted the army, and in 1798, 
with the passing of General Jourdan's famous law, conscription for general 



96 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




GROUPING THE COLORS: COLONIAL TROOPS 



service began. Thus when Napoleon took command, practically the whole 
male population was at his disposal. He perfected the work of organiza- 
tion, forming the "corps troops" and cavalry and artillery reserves. But 
the long foreign wars had no attraction for the soldiers, and the number of 
refractaires (men who refused to come up for service) increased, so that in 1806 
Napoleon was obliged to anticipate the conscripts of 1807. 
Even the "Grand Armee of 1805-06 owed in great part its 
victories (Austerlitz, Jena, Auerstadt) to the fifty per cent 
of the old veterans which remained in it. Th« anticipated 
conscriptions failed and Napoleon was obliged to call in 
foreign soldiers, until his armies became a mass of men of 
all nations, and as later wars closed these avenues of recruit- 
ment, conscription became more and more severe. Only 
the genius of Napoleon could have controlled such a hetero- 
geneous army and compelled the victories of Friedland 
(1807), Wagram (1'809), Smolensk (1812). 

The Restoration abolished conscription, but was obliged 
to re-enforce it. Up to 1855, however, exemptions and sub- 
stitutions were allowed, but in this year the law of dotation 
(or exemption by payment) was passed, thus ending a per- 
sonal substitution, and the State provided substitutes for all 
those who paid a fixed sum. In this way, conscription grad- 
ually yielded to voluntary enlistment, and in 1866 of a total 
establishment of 400,000, only 120,000 were conscripts. 
During this period many changes were made in the organi- 
zation. In the Crimean War (1854) the army was raised 
to 500,000 men. The old imperial guard was re-established, 
and the army won great fame under Napoleon III in 1859 
by the victories of Montebello, Magenta and Solferino. The 





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w 



FRANCE 



99 




FIELD ARTILLERY ESCORTED BY DRAGOONS 



campaign of the Germans in 1866 showed France that it was necessary to re- 
organize her army if she were to maintain her military reputation, and in 1867 
Marshal Niel introduced his measure to produce a "nation in arms" based 
on universal service. By the law of February 1, 1868, military service was 
fixed at 5 years in the active army and 3 in the reserve, and an active national 
guard wa.- tormed in which all tnose who bought themselves off from military 
service or who remained after the annual conscription was filled ( 100,000 men), 
were compelled to serve. The first line army was to consist of 800,000 men (half 
in reserve), with a separate army of the second line. But his death in 1869 left 
the work incomplete, while the disastrous Franco-Prussian War opened in 1870. 
The field troops then consisted of 368 battalions, 252 squadrons and 983 guns ; 
the peace strength was 393,000, the war 567,000. Within a year, the nation sent 
1,700,000 into the field, but they were unable to withstand the well-disciplined 
and experienced German troops. 

Since 1870 every effort has been made to bring the French army up to the 




CU-RASSIER'S HELMETS 



FRANCE 



101 




INFANTRY SKIRMISHING DURING MANOEUVRES 

highest point of efficiency. Important recruiting laws were passed in 1872, 1889, 
and 1905. To-day the French army consists of the National or Metropolitan army 
and the Colonial, both under the Minister of War. Military service is com- 
pulsory and universal, no exemptions being allowed, except for physical unfitness, 
and liability to service extends from the age of 20 to 48. According to the 
Law of 1913, by which the nation endeavored to keep pace with the German 
laws of 1911 and 1912, the two-year term of service with the colors was raised 
to three, by which means the standing army was increased by about 230,000. After 
serving 3 years in the regular army, the soldier serves 11 in the reserve, 7 in the 
territorial army and 8 in the territorial reserve, in which division alone there is 
no periodical training. The Colonial army is entirely distinct from the Metro- 




A BICYCLE BATTALION 



102 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 



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Si 

*9m. 



politan, is recruited exclusively by voluntary enlistment, and consists of garrisons 
(native and white) stationed over seas, and a force in France. 

The peace strength (1913) of the armies in France and provinces close by 
from which troops can be readily moved is : 

France 

Staffs and services, etc 7,274 

Military schools ■ 2,828 

Infantry 312,429 

Cavalry 64,061 

Artillery 92,237 

Engineers 16,564 

Train 8,020 

Administrative corps 14,550 

Gendarmerie, gardes repub 24,827 

Saharan companies 

Total Metropolitan army 543,790 

Colonial troops in France 27,944 

Colonial troops 



Algiers 


Tunis 


Total 


1,226 


262 


8,762 
2,828 


36,546 


12,373 


361,348 


7,466 


1,844 


73,369 


3,532 


1,802 


97,571 


1,302 


469 


18,335 


1,859 


613 


10,492 


3,750 


700 


19,000 




143 


24.990 


1,005 




1,005 



56,686 18,206 



27,944 



Total 571,734 56,686 18,206 645,644 

To these may be added in time of war 500,000 reserves and 80,000 colonial 
native troops at once available; 600,000 reserves of the second line (fit for field 
work), 500,000 of the territorial army (fit for garrison and covering duty), and 
300,000 territorial reserves (trained for home duty only) could also be called out. 
Thus the total effective war strength would be well over 2,500,000. 
France expended for armament during 1913-14, $306,814,844. 





MANOEUVRES 
GENERAL STAFF IN CENTER 



104 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 





COLONIAL TROOPS 




fu 



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THE ALPINE CORPS 




THE BUGLERS OF THE CUIRASSIERS 




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110 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 





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QUICK FIRING GUN 





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THE NAVY 

The foundation of the French navy dates from 
about 1180, when Philip Augustus began the task 
of recovering the sea-coast from his great vassals 
and from King John of England. On account of her 
geographical position, France has always had to 
have two fleets, one in the Mediterranean and one 
for her northern and western coasts. The King 
drew his navy from the feudal array (see England. 
The Navy), the national levy and his personal ships. 
Though many of the great vassals owned ships, 
they did not always supply them, nor were the 
coast towns much more willing to contribute their 
quota, so that the King was obliged to rely upon 
his own forces, which he in a great measure pur- 
chased or obtained from Genoa and Aragon. St. 
Louis (1226-70) created the first royal fleet for his 
first crusade (1249), built the first dockyard 
( Aigues Mortes), and created the office of admiral. 
His^fleet consisted of galleys rowed by hired men 
(turma). From the middle of the fifteenth cen- 
tury the turma were replaced by galley slaves. 
Philip IV le Bel (1285-1314) opened a naval sta- 
tion at Rouen, which, however, disappeared in 1419. 
The navy then fell into obscurity, excepting during Francis I's reign (1515-47), 
until the reconstruction under Richelieu. 

After Richelieu's death it again disintegrated, but was rebuilt and well 
organized by Louis XIV (1643-1715). With the assistance of the ablest officers, 
Louis' ministers, Colbert and Lyonne, drew up a code of laws, the ordonnance, 

Flags. 





ENSIGN & JACK 



VICE-ADMIRAL. 



REAR-ADMIRAL. CAPTAIN 

commanding: a division. 



t \Ve.-A vice-admiral wears his dag at the fore, rear-admiral at the main. 



112 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 



i 



'J— 





"VILLE DE PARIS" OF 1851 



which was promulgated on April 5, 1689. This ordonnance, with revisions made 
in 1765, 72, 74, 76 and '86, was used until the Revolution. According to it, 
service was compulsory, affecting the inhabitants of coast towns and river valleys 
as far up as they were capable of floating a lighter, and so severe were the con- 
scription laws that service was evaded, even at the expense of voluntary exile. 
The navy did not include a permanent marine force. Though in theory the 
administration was very fine, it was in reality corrupt, and the ill-treatment of 
the sailors led to many desertions. The noble corps clung to its special priv- 
ileges, and maintained an insolent attitude towards the officiers bleus. At the 
beginning of the Revolution the long repressed hatred of the noble officers broke 
out in all its fury, and nearly all were massacred or driven into exile. Louis XVI 



FRANCE 



113 




"PARIS" OF 1914 



had, it is true, relaxed in 1786 the rule which demanded proofs of the nobility 
of all naval officers, but it was too late. 

In the disorganizations and re-organizations which the navy underwent during 
the Revolution, all discipline was lost, and all attempts, first by the Republic 
and then by the Empire, to re-establish an effective navy failed. After the fall 
of the Empire, however, the navy steadily developed, and at the present day 
she ranks fourth of the navies of the world. During recent years special 
attention has been given to the development of submarines, as it is conceded 
that these would adequately protect the coasts and could be maintained at 
little expense. France also' has paid special attention to aviation, preferring 
aeroplanes to dirigibles. 



114 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




BATTLESHIP "SUFFREN" 



The navy is manned partly by conscription, partly by voluntary enlistment, 
and partly from the army. The greater number of officers are graduates of the 
naval academy at Brest, but many are obtained from other schools, especially 
those promoted from the enlisted force. The navy department is under the 
direction of the Superior Council of the Navy (organized in 1909), and presided 
over by a minister of marine, a civil officer who is a member of the Cabinet. 
The executive head was the chief of the naval general staff until 1902, when the 
chief became a bureau officer, and all bureau officers became subordinate to the 
minister of marine. Since the law of September, 1912, practically the whole 
navy is concentrated in the Mediterranean. 

The personnel of the navy consists of: 15 vice admirals, 30 rear admirals, 
125 captains, 215 commanders, 754 lieutenants, 420 sub-lieutenants, 1,700 midship- 
men, 52,000 men and a reserve force of about 42,300. 
The French fleet shows a strength of : 

Built Building 

Dreadnoughts 2 9 

Battleships 23 7 

Armored cruisers 20 

Coast defenders 4 

lst class protected cruisers 5 

2nd class protected cruisers 4 

3rd class protected cruisers 5 

Torpedo vessels 4 

Torpedo destroyers 81 5 

Torpedo boats 166 

Submarines • 73 17 

The navy expenditure for 1913-14 amounted to $104,238,815, an increase of 
67 per cent, over the 1907-08 figures. 

The aeroplane corps is specially effective, and the 1914 air fleet includes : 
14 dirigibles (8 more building) and 612 aeroplanes. 



FRANCE 



115 




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OLDER 2ND CLASS BATTLESHIP "BOUVET" 




BATTLESHIP "DANTON" 




ARMORED CRUISER "KLEBER" 



116 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




ON THE BATTLESHIP "VERITfi" 




BATTLESHIP "JUSTICE' 




DESTROYER "BOUTEFEU" 



FRANCE 



117 




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120 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 





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FRANCE 



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Germany 




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WILLIAM II 





THE CROWN PRINCE FREDERICK WILLIAM 



130 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




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EMPEROR WILLIAM AND HIS SIX SONS 



WILLIAM II 



Prince Frederick William Victor Albert (William II), King of Prussia and 
German Emperor, was born at Berlin on January 27, 1859, of Emperor Frederick 
III and the Empress Victoria (Princess Royal of Great Britain). Following 
the military tradition of his house, he entered on his military training at an early 
age, and in 1869 was made a second lieutenant. In 1874 he entered the gymna- 
sium of Cassel, following the will of his grandfather, Emperor William I, who 
wished his education to bring him in contact with all classes of his people. From 
there he went to Bonn, where his special attention was given to law and political 
sciences, and in 1879 he began his military service. As a young man, however, 
he was not popular. With the exception of King Christian of Denmark, who 
sympathized with him, none understood his restless, sensitive, active, aggressive 
temperament, with its sudden fits of melancholy, though all, even Bismarck, saw 
that he would rule alone. His marriage was characteristic of him, for in spite of 
much opposition, he married on January 21, 1881, Princess Augusta Victoria, the 
poverty-stricken daughter of Duke Frederick of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg- 
Augustenburg. The marriage, which has been very happy, won over the Schles- 
wig-Holsteiners. 

From his succession (June 15, 1888), he took the reins of government into 
his own hands, and in 1890 forced Bismarck, the great Chancellor, to retire. 
From then, by force of his personality and will, William has been the ruling 
influence of Germany. That he took an exalted view of his duties and re- 
sponsibilities is shown in his words : "I have vowed to Almighty God that, after 
the example of my forefathers, I will be a just and clement chief to my people, 
that I will foster piety and the fear of God, and that I will protect the peace and 
protect the welfare of the country, be helpful to the poor and distressed, and a 
true guardian to the right." He has proved a modern ruler, and his coun- 
try's welfare and wonderful progress in industrial arts and commerce is 






GERMANY 



133 




FOUR GENERATIONS-EMPEROR WILLIAM I, EMPEROR FREDERICK III, 
EMPEROR WILLIAM II, AND THE CROWN PRINCE 



his monument. His tastes are strongly military, and he has lived his life in 
military terms. The perfection of the army has been his lifework, and to him 
the navy owes its great efficiency. His internal policy has been to advance 
German industry, and his foreign to build up a merchant marine and secure an 
outlet for the surplus energy of his peole. His energies are untiring, and his 
interests include literature, art, music, sport, on all of which he can speak with 
authority. 

The Kaiser and Kaiserin have six sons and a daughter. The Crown 
Prince Frederick William (b. on May 6, 1882), entered the army at fourteen, 
and is thoroughly familiar with all branches of the service. On June 6, 1905, he 
married Princess Cecilie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and the couple have four sons, 
the eldest, Prince William, being his grandfather's favorite. Prince William Eitel 
Frederick (b. on July 7, 1883), married in 1906 Princesss Sophie Charlotte of 
Oldenberg. Prince Adalbert (b. in 1884), the third son, is now serving with the 
fleet. Prince' August William (b. in 1887), is also in the army. He has devoted 
his attention to law and medicine, taking his doctor's degree in jurisprudence ; in 
1908 he married his cousin, the Princess Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein. 
Princes Oscar (b. in 1888) and Joachim, the youngest son (b. in 1890), are also 
in the army. The Kaiser's youngest child, his merry "Princess Sunshine," the 
Princess Victoria Louise, was married in 1913 to Prince Ernest August of 
Cumberland. The Kaiser conferred on the young couple the title of King 
and Queen of Brunswick, and they have a young son. 






K 



THE HOUSE OF HOHENZOLLERN 



The imperial family name is taken from the castle of Hohenzollern, which 
was built on the hill of Zollern, near Hechingen in Suabia, and the family 
traces its descent from Count Thassilo, a Suabian noble, who lived about 900. 
Berthold (d. 1088), in his "Chronicon," mentions Burkhard and Wezil 
(Werner) of Zollern. Burkhard's grandson, Frederick II, was a favorite of 
the German Kings, Lothair and Conrad III, and the family occupied a prom- 
inent position among the petty princely families of Suabia during the eleventh 
century. Frederick III, by his marriage with Sophia, daughter of Conrad, 
Burgrave of Nuremberg, succeeded his father-in-law about 1192, and acquired 
lands in Franconia and Austria. His sons, Conrad and Frederick, ruled in 
common until 1227, when Conrad became Burgrave of Nuremberg, thus 
founding the Franconian line, and Frederick took the Zollern lands and 
founded the Suabian branch. The Franconian line attached itself to the 
Hohenstaufens, and on the extinction of that line to the Hapsburgs, Fred- 
erick III, Burgrave of Nuremberg, supporting Rudolf of Hapsburg in 1248. 
During the war of 1314, the Hohenzollerns sided against the Austrian house, 
but subsequently became its ally. Capacity to acquire and retain land as 
well as ability to rule with thrift were characteristics of the Franconian 
Hohenzollerns. In 1346 Burgrave John II became Governor of Brandenburg 
and in 1415 Emperor Sigismund gave Frederick VI Brandenburg as his 
hereditary possession, and made him first elector. The history of this branch 
of the house is identified with that of Brandenburg until in 1701 Frederick 
III of Brandenburg became King of Prussia. The Prussian Hohenzollerns 
consolidated their kingdom and Frederick the Great Elector and Frederick 
II the Great made it the important German state. Under Frederick William I, 
Prussia took the lead in securing the unity of the German Empire, and in 
1871 was chosen German Emperor. His grandson is the present Kaiser. 

The Suabian line had gradually lost considerable territory by the several 
divisions of its lands, but regained prominence in the person of Count Eitel 
Frederick II, who received Haigerloch from the Emperor Maximilian. His 
grandson, Charles (d. 1576), received from the Emperor Charles V, the coun- 
ties of Sigmaringen and Vohringen. At his death the lands were divided 
among his three sons, Eitel Frederick IV taking Hohenzollern, with the title 
of Hohenzollern-Hechingen, Charles II, Sigmaringen Vohringen, with the title 
of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, and Christopher Haigerloch (this line died 
out in 1634). In 1695, the two branches of the family entered into an agree- 
ment with the Brandenburg line, by which it was provided that on the 
extinction of either line, possession should pass to the other and on the 
extinction of both should pass to Brandenburg. After the revolutionary trou- 



GERMANY 



135 




PRINCE HENRY OF PRUSSIA 



bles of 1848, however, the Princes of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Hohen- 
zollern-Sigmaringen resigned their principalities, which accordingly went to 
the King of Prussia, and received from him annual pensions, and the title, of 
"highness" with the prerogatives of younger sons of the royal family. The 
Hohenzollern-Hechingens became extinct in 1869. Prince Leopold, whose 




IMPERIAL YACHT HOHENZOLLERN 



candidacy to the throne of Spain precipitated the Franco-Prussian War, was 
the eldest son of the last of the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen ruler, Prince Carl 
Anton ; the second son, Charles, became King of Roumania in 1881, and should 
he die childless the succession would fall to his nephew Ferdinand, son of 
Leopold. 




HISTORY 

Previous to the campaigns of Julius Caesar, the lands now forming the 
German Empire were occupied by barbarian tribes, chiefly of Celtic, Gothic 
and Slavonic origin. The Romans mention the Gauls, Burgundians, Marco 
manni, Alamanni, etc. They were in constant conflict with the Romans, and the 
leadership passed from one tribe to another. During the time of Clovis, the 
Saxons dwelt between the Rhine and the Elbe, the Alamanni occupied what was 
later called Suabia, the Francs, Franconia, and the Bavarians, Bavaria. Under 
Charlemagne the German tribes were united for the first time under a single 
ruler and converted to Christianity. By the treaty of Verdun (843), which di- 
vided the Empire of Charlemagne among his sons, the lands east of the Rhine 
and the lands around Mainz, Worms and Spires went to Louis the German, and 
for the first time the people had a leader whose authority was confined to his 
own territory. The beginnings of a national life may be traced from this period, 
By the treaty of Mersen (870), between Louis and Charles the Bald of France. 
Germany obtained additional territory, and assumed the proportions which it 
retained during the Middle Ages It was bounded by the Elbe and the Rhine, 
the Bohemian Mountains, and included Alsace-Lorraine and the Archbishopric? 
of Mainz, Trier, Cologne, Salzburg and Bremen. The country was divided 
into the duchies of Saxony, Bavaria, Franconia, Suabia and Lorraine. During 
this time feudalism was introduced, and the power of the nobles began to over 
shadow that of the King. 

Henry I of Saxony, chosen King in 912, vindicated somewhat the authority 
of the king against the nobles, overcame the Wends and the Hungarians, planned 
a new system of cavalry, and established the Margraviates of North Saxony and 
Meissen. His successor, Otto I the Great, elected king in 936, crushed the powei 
of the nobles, conquered the Magyars, acquired the crown of Lombardy, and 
received from the Pope the imperial crown. His successors followed his ex 
ample, and the sovereign crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle claimed as his due, corona- 
tion as Emperor from the hand of the Pope at Rome. Thus grew up the Holy 
Roman Empire, though Germany itself remained a State of divided nations. They 
had, however, a certain consciousness of national life, as is witnessed by the use of 
the word deutsch to indicate the whole people. After the death of Otto, the power 
of the Emperor declined, though Henry III (1039) wielded almost absolute au- 
thority. The Franconian line died out in 1125 and was succeeded by the Hohen- 
staufens, who ruled Germany from 1138-1208 and from 1215-54. This period saw 
the rise of the minnesingers, the building of many magnificent cathedrals, and the 
introduction of Roman law from Italy. The last of the Hohenstaufens proved 



GERMANY 



137 



weak and ineffectual and the country was divided into a number of rival duchie? 
and principalities. The right to elect the emperor had passed into the hands of a 
few nobles. At the election of 1257 seven only attended — the Archbishops of 
Mainz, Trier and Cologne, the Dukes of Saxony and Bavaria (who was also 
Count Palatine of the Rhine), the Margrave of Brandenburg, and the King ot 
Bohemia. At this time also leagues of free cities were formed, the most notable 
of which were the Rhenish Confederation and the Hanseatic League. 

In 1273 the electors chose Rudolf of Hapsburg emperor, and from then until 
the Peace of Westphalia (1648) the country was continuously engaged in wars 
domestic and foreign under such rulers as Louis IX (1314) ; Charles IV (1349), 
who founded the University of Prague and in 1356 by the publication of the 
Golden Bull definitely fixed the number of electors at seven (four secular and 
three ecclesiastical) ; Sigismund (d. 1437, after whom the imperial crown passed 
to the Austrian Hapsburgs) ; Maximilian I (1486), who established a supreme 
court of the Empire, and acquired Burgundy and the Netherlands by marriage ; 
Charles V (d. 1558), during whose reign Germany was united with Austria, and 
included a large territory. During this period also, Germany passed through the 
crisis of the Reformation, suffered from internal revolts such as the Peasants' 
War, and engaged in the wars against France. After the Thirty Years' War 
the population of Germany had dwindled to barely 6,000,000, and she lost Metz 
Toul, Verdun, Alsace, Western Pomerania, Bremen and Verden, while Switzer- 
land and the United Provinces were made independent. Germany again became 
a loose confederation of principalities and free cities. Any authority which still 
belonged to the Emperor was transferred to the Diet, which alone had the powei 
of making laws, concluding treaties in the name of Germany, and of declaring 
war. From 1663 it became a permanent body and was attended only by the rep 
resentatives of the princes and the free cities. 

Of the German states, Prussia now began to come into prominence. The 
Emperor Sigismund had given Brandenburg to Frederick, Count of Hohenzollern. 
In his hands and those of his successors the kingdom flourished. At the time of 
the Reformation, Albert of Hohenzollern, Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, 
became a Protestant, dissolved the order and received in fief of the King of 
Poland the Duchy of Prussia, which under Frederick William the Great Elector 
of Brandenburg, was declared independent of Poland (1657). His son Fred- 
erick was crowned King of Prussia (January, 1701). He laid the foundation oi 
the future greatness of his kingdom by careful administration and by the founda- 







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138 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




tion of an excellently trained army, with 
which his son, Frederick II the Great 
was enabled to enter European politics. 
He gained Silesia by the Seven Years 
War (1756-63), and WestPrussia in the 
partition of Poland, and left his king- 
dom the foremost state of Germany, with 
the reputation of a formidable army. 
Long years of peace weakened this 
army, and in the struggle with Napoleon 
Prussia was completely defeated. Her 
humiliation, however, proved her salva- 
tion. Under the inspiring influence of 
Queen Louise, the people roused them- 
selves to recover their lost prestige, and 
under Stein the army was re-organized 
and drilled to a fine state of perfection. 
Napoleon's retreat from Moscow gave 
Prussia her opportunity in the battle of 
Leipzig (1813). 

The Congress of Vienna (1815) de- 
cided that Germany was to consist of a 
confederation of sovereign states, and 
during the forties various ideas of a 
united German Empire were proposed 



FREDERICK THE GREAT 

and schemes were offered for the revisioii 
of the constitution. By the Frankfort 
Parliament it was revised in a democratic 
sense, though the imperial title was re- 
tained and made hereditary. It was of- 
fered to Frederick William IV of Prussia 
who would not, however, accept it with- 
out the full sanction of the princes and 
the free cities. Germany was divided, 
into two camps, one siding with Prus- 
sian interests and the other with Aus- 
trian. The Italian War of 1859 changed 
the condition of affairs. Prussia gained 
immensely in prestige and King William 
appointed Bismarck his prime minister 
(1862). Bismarck felt that the question 
of German unity could not be settled 
without war, and determined that, in such 
an event, Prussia should be ready. To 
this end his diplomacy was devoted to 
the aggrandizement of Prussian terri- 
tory and the training of her army. The 
victory at Konigsgratz secured the tri- 
umph of his policy, and by the treaty 




QUEEN LOUTSE OF PRUSSIA 



GERMANY 




THE PROCLAMATION AT VERSAILLES OF KING WILLIAM I OF PRUSSIA 
AS FIRST GERMAN EMPEROR 




PRINCE OTTO VON BISMARCK 



COUNT VON MOLTKE 



140 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 



of Prague the main outlines of the proposed Germar union were marked out. 
The leadership of the confederation was to be hereditary in the kingdom of 
Prussia, the legislative power was to be vested in a federal council (Bicndesrat) 
and a Diet {Bundestag), elected by the whole people. However, the South 
German Confederation was in no hurry to join with Prussia 100 much lay 
between them. Bismarck realized that only a common interesi would draw 
them together, and this he found in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. In this war 
the German states united, and in 1871, King William of Prussia was elected the 
first German Emperor. 

He was succeeded in 1888 by his son, 
Frederick, who lived but a few months after 
his accession, when the present Kaiser, 
William II, ascended the throne. During his 
reign the empire has made wonderful strides 
in industrial and commercial prosperity. The 
foundation of a colonial empire was begun in 
1884, a first-class navy was built and the coun- 
try took its place as one of the foremost 
powers in Europe, and with the formation of 
the Triple Alliance, Germany hoped to make 
secure that position. 

The area of the German Empire, includ- 
ing Alsace-Lorraine, is 208,830 sq. mi., and 
the population numbered 64,925,993 in 1910, 
showing an increase of 4,284,504 over the 1905 
census. Agriculture is a very considerable 
industry, employing about 10,000,000 and the 
mining which is carried on chiefly in Prussia 
and Saxony and other manufacturing indus- 
tries, employ more than 11,000,000. The 
industries have been developed enormously 
in recent years, and in actual tonnage Ger- 
many stands second in the world. According 
to the statistics of 1913-14 the imports 
amounted to $2,754,275,000, and the exports 
to $2,274,875,000. 
The German colonies include : 

Africa: Kamerun (1884, 1911 ; 298,400 sq. mi.; pop. 3,748,720), Togoland 
(1884; 33,700 sq. mi. ; pop. 1,031,978), German Southwest Africa (1884- 
90; 322,650 sq. mi.; pop. 94,386), German East Africa (1885-90; 
384,180 sq. mi.; pop. 7,651,106). 
Asia : Kiau-Chau ( 1897 ; 200 sq. mi. ; pop. 168,000) . 

The Pacific: German New Guinea, including Kaiser Wilhelm's Land (1885- 
86), Bismarck Archipelago (1885), Caroline Islands (1899), Pelew 
Islands (1899), Marianne Islands (1899), Solomon Islands (1886), 
Marshall Islands (1886), etc. (95,160 sq. mi.; pop. 601,427), and the 
Samoan Islands (1899; 1,000 sq. mi.; pop. 35,000). 

According to the Constitution of April 16, 1871, all the states of Germany 
form an "eternal" union with the direction of political and military affairs vested 
in the King of Prussia, who in this capacity bears the title of German Emperor. 
In his office the Emperor is assisted by a federal council (Bundesrat), which 
represents the governments of the individual states and free cities, and by the 
Reichstag, which represents the German nation. The Emperor has no veto on 
the laws passed by these bodies. The Reichstag is composed of 397 members, 




EMPEROR WILLIAM I 



GERMANY 



141 



and is elected by the people for the term of five years; the Bundesrat consists 
of 61 delegates appointed by the governments of the individual states for each 
session. The executive power remains with the Emperor, and he holds the right, 
with the consent of the Bundesrat, to declare war (if defensive), make peace, 
enter into treaties, and appoint and receive ambassadors. He is supreme head 
of the army, but there is a separate minister of war for the kingdoms of Prussia, 
Saxony, Wurttemberg and Bavaria, the minister of war for Prussia acting for all 
the other states. 




1. Collar of the Order of the Crown. 

2. Chain of the Order of the Black Eagle. 

3. Order of William. 

4. (a and b) Military Order of Merit. 

5. Military Order of Bavaria. 

6. Order of the Black Eagle. 

7. Hohenzollern Order. 

8. Star of the Red Eagle. 



9. Order of Frederick. 

10. Order of the Lion. 

11. Order of the Star. 

12. Civil Orlder of Merit. 

13. Iron Cross. 

14. Order of the Crown. 

15. Order of the Red Eagle. 

16. (a and b) Order of the Johannites. 



17. Order of Ludwig of Bavaria. 



HHec^aj 



142 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 





DR. VON BETHMANN— HOLLWEG 
THE IMPERIAL CHANCELLOR 



GEN. FALKENHAYM 
War Minister 





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ADMIRAL VON TIRPITZ 
Chief of the Marine 



COUNT HELMUTH VON MOLTKE 
Chief of Staff of the Army 



THE ARMY 




Before the unification of the 
German Empire, the several 
states possessed distinct armies, 
federal armies when required be- 
ing formed from the contingents 
which the members of the union 
agreed to furnish, after the plan 
of the Holy Roman Empire. 
This state of affairs continued 
until 1870, when the separate 
armies of the old confederation were remodelled, on Prussian lines into the 
German Army. 

The Prussian Army dates from about 1630, and during the Thirty Years 
War, owing to poor equipment, suffered severely, but Frederick the Great 
Elector, who paid careful attention to the training of his army, avenged these 
reverses at Fehrbellin (1675). The Prussian army joined in the various wars 
of the period, acquitting itself honorably in the War of - the Spanish Suc- 
cession on many fields from Blenheim to Malplaquet. Frederick William 
I of Prussia entrusted the task of re-orgainzing the army to Leopold of 
Anhalt-Dessau, who devoted the years from 1715 to 1740 to the work of 
training. He had introduced in 1700 iron ramrods into the infantry service, 
and drilled the infantry to a point of perfection in which it was superior 
to even the Austrian and French, and though the cavalry had been neglected, 
the infantry was able to win the earlier battles of Frederick the Great. Ijle 
devoted himself to the reform of the cavalry, with results shown in the vic- 
tories of Hohenfriedberg (1745)"," Rossback (1757), Leuthen (1757) and Zorn- 
dorf (1758). Before the end of the Seven Years' War, however, the old 
infantry had been replaced by foreigners, deserters and vagabonds, and when 
Frederick was dead, his successors were unable to manage these heterogeneous 
elements. They did little for the army, which, though it remained formidable 
in appearance, fell to pieces before the onslaught of Napoleon. The sting of 
the French yoke finally roused the people, and the armies (trained under 
Stein) sent to the campaign of 1813 were actuated by a national feeling. 
Prussia then devoted strict attention to the establishment of the army. 
Universal compulsory service was adopted, and by the law of 1814 the 
periods of service were fixed at 3 years in the army, 2 in the reserve, 14 in 



144 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




TATAR AND UHLAN (1741 




UHLAN (1807) 



GERMANY 



145 




GUARD UHLAN (1810) 

the Landwehr, and an annual contingent of 40,000 was called for, which was 
raised by the law of 1860 to 63,000 when the period of the reserve was 
increased to 4 years and in the Landwehr reduced to 5. 

The Saxon Army distinguished itself in the wars of its country, par- 
ticularly in those against Poland. With the defeat at the hands of the Prus- 
sians at Kesseldorf (1745), it lost its reputation, and after Pirna (1756), the 
men were obliged to join the Prussian army for the remainder of the Seven 
Years' War, though a few outlying regiments escaped to join the Austrians, 
and had the satisfaction of defeating the Prussians at Kolin (1757). At the 
outbreak of the French Revolution, the Saxon army numbered about 30,000. 
It fought at Tena with Prussia, and during the French domination, joined 




146 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




SOLDIERS OF THE PAST 




BOY SCOUTS, SOLDIERS OF THE FUTURE 




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GERMANY 



149 




SAXON CAVALRY 



Napoleon, who rewarded the Elector of Saxony by recognizing him as king 
and increasing his territory. After Leipzig (1813), the King lost much of 
his lands and the army was reconstituted on a smaller scale. Saxony shared 
with \ustria the defeat of Kdnigsgratz (1866), though the army was dis- 
tinguished for its courage and steadiness. Saxony joined the North German 
Confederation, and her army formed the XII corps of the Great German 
army and delivered the decisive blow at Gravelotte (1870). The Saxon army 
is now organized on Prussian lines, and forms 2 army corps of the German 
army. The Emperor, with the King of Saxony, names the officers for higher 
commands, but Saxony retains her separate war minister and budget. 

The Bavarian Army also dates from the Thirty Years' War, in which 
the forces commanded by Count Tilly won great fame at the battles of White 
Mountain (1620), Stadlton (1623) and Lutter (1626). The army took part 
in almost everv war between France and Austria, and served under Napoleon 
in the campaigns of 1805-06, for which services Napoleon made Bavaria a 
kingdom. Bavaria fought against Prussia in 1866, but was defeated, and 
joined with her in the Franco-Prussian war, distinguishing itself at Sedan 
and on the Loire. 



150 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 











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BAVARIAN INFANTRY CHARGE 



The Wiirttemberg arm joined the Bavarians in 1866, but after 1870 went 
into the Empire. The Hanoverian and Hessian armies ( which furnished 
troops to Great Britain during the American War of Independence) also 
joined in the Franco-Prussian War. 

According to the constitution of April 16, 1871, all the land forces of the 
Empire must form a united army in peace and war, and must unconditionally 
obey the Emperor's orders, though the Bavarian soldiers are exempt from 
taking the oath of fidelity in time of peace. 

Military service begins at the age of 20 (in time of war volunteers of 
17 may be called for), and each soldier spends 7 years in the regular army 




LOCATING THE ENEMY, QUICK-FIRING GUN 



GERMANY 



151 




CAVALRY PARADE IN MUNICH 

(including years spent in the reserve). For the 5 following years he is with the 
1st Levy of the Landwehr or 2nd Line Army, and trains during this time for two 
periods of from 8 to 14 days. Until March 31st of the year in which he 
completes his 39th year, he belongs to the 2nd Levy of the Landwehr, but 
undergoes no training during this period. During their service in the regular 
army, members of the cavalry and horse artillery spend three years with the 
colors, while those in the other branches of the service spend two. All 
soldiers finally pass for 6 years into the 2d ban of the Landsturm, a body 
purely for home defence. The first ban of the Landsturm is comprised of 
untrained men ranging from 17 to 39 years of age. University young men 
are admitted as volunteers and serve one year, defraying their own expenses. 
They supply almost all the reserve and Landwehr officers. The Ersatz 
reserve is composed of men of 20 who are in excess of the numbers required 




STUDYING A MAP DURING MANOEUVRES 




THE EMPEROR AT MANOEUVRES 




UHLAN 



CUIRASSIERS 



154 THE EUROPEAN WAR 




ior the annual recruits, and they receive 3 trainings of 10, 6 and 4 weeks 
respectively. This force supplies the waste of war and some of its members 
are also trained in special non-combatant duties. 

Germany revises her military policy every 5 years. A law was passed 
in 1911 to secure a peace strength of 515,221 by 1915-16, but before it could 
be fulfilled, Germany, fearing lest a change in the balance of military power 
should result on account of the first Balkan War, startled the world by increas- 
ing (1912) her peace strength by 136,000 men. And in 1913, 5 aeroplane 
Dattalions, mustering 17 companies, were added to the 24 dirigibles already 
in military charge. The army now consists of: 651 battalions , 555 squadrons, 
633 batteries, 226 batteries of heavy and fortress artillery, 44 pioneer bat- 
talions, with certain technical troops in addition, 21 of communication troops 
and 26 of train, all these units at a high piece effective. 

The following table gives the peace establishment in 1913 : 

Non. Com. Officers 

Officers & Men 

Infantry, 217 regiments 16,578 471,796 

Rifies (Jager), 18 battalions 620 15,134 

Machine gun sections, 26 134 2,294 

District Headquarters, 317 1,067 6,593 

Cavalry, 110 regiments 3,696 82,007 

Field Artillery, 100 regiments 4,692 86,777 

Foot Artillery, 24 regiments 1,469 33,230 

Pioneers, 35 battalions 1,046 22,999 

Railway, telegraph balloon units 935 18,006 

Train, 25 battalions 631 10,961 

Small miscellaneous corps 785 2,040 

Staff, etc 3,651 1,660 

Total 35,304 753,497 

The total war strength approximates 4,350,000 men, including the field 
army and its reserve formation, the Landzvehr (1,800,000) and trained men 
of the Landsturm (800,000), but the highly trained and vigorous 1st line 
would perhaps not greatly exceed 1,500,000. 



GERMANY 



157 




1. 10.5 CM. SIEGE GUN. 2. 28 CM. MORTAR GUN. 3. 7.5 CM. ANTI-AIR 
CANNON. 4. 7.5 CM. MOUNTAIN GUN. 




FIELD ARTILLERY IN ACTION 



158 



THE EUROPEAN WAR 




LAND BATTERY FIRING AGAINST BATTLESHIPS 




PIONEERS CONSTRUCTING A BRIDGE 




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164 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




FIELD BATTERY IN ACTION 




CAVALRY CROSSING A RIVER 




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THE NAVY 



As early as 1848 the German people urged the construction of a fleet and 
a few men-of-war were built, but the Bundestag, or Federal Council, was not 
in sympathy with the movement and it was accordingly dropped. Prussia, 
however, began laying the foundations of a small navy, and, on the annexa- 
tion of Holstein in 1864, obtained possession of the important port of Kiel, 
which has since been strongly fortified. In 1869, Wilhelmshaven (which had 
been purchased from Oldenburg in 1854) was opened as a strong war port. 
The navy, however, was of slow growth, and in 1868 consisted only of 45 
steamers (including 2 ironclads) and 44 sailing vessels. Even after the for- 
mation of the North German Confederation, when it took on the common 
federal interest, the navy did not add to the Empire's prestige. Since October 
1, 1867, all ships have sailed under the flag bearing the black, white and red, 
with the Prussian eagle and iron cross. But towards the end of the 19th 
century Germany inaugurated the naval policy which in July, 1914, gave them a 
fleet second only to the British. 




IMPERIAL 
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NORTH SEA 
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GERMANY. 



167 




THE EMPEROR HIDING EGGS FOR THE EASTER HUNT FOR THE MARINES 



In March, 1889, the naval administration was transferred from the min- 
istry to the imperial admiralty, or Reichsmarineamt, and entrusted to the 
naval Secretary of State. The chief command was then also separated and 
vested in a naval officer, who controls the general movements of the fleet 
and deals with questions concerning coast defence and training and efficiency 
of the personnel. The naval Secretary of State has charge of the Imperial 
arsenals and dockyards and all matters pertaining to the material, clothing, etc. 
The Law of June 14, 1900 provided that the fleet should always be maintained 
at a strength of 37 battleships, 20 armored cruisers, 32 small cruisers, 144 
torpedo boats, and 72 submarines ; in 1909 this law was amended and pro- 
vided that by 1917 the strength of the fleet should include 41 battleships, 20 
armored cruisers, 38 smaller cruisers, 144 torpedos and 72 submarines, and 




DREADNOUGHT "HELIGOLAND" 



168 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




DREADNOUGHT "OLDENBURG" 



that no battleship should be older than 20 years and no torpedo boat older 
than 12. 

The navy is manned by the obligatory service of the maritime population 
— sailors, fishermen, ships' carpenters, and others — and of the semi-maritime 
population, or those who have smaller experience of the sea, as well as by 
volunteers who prefer naval service to military. Since great inducements are 
held out for able seamen to volunteer in the navy, the number of these in 
recent years has been very large. Out of a total seafaring population of 80,000, 
48,000 are serving in the merchant navy at home and about 6,000 in foreign 
merchant navies. The naval personnel counts about 73,000 officers and men, plus a 
1st line reserve of about 110,000, and is especially efficient in torpedo service. 




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THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




ARMORED CRUISER "ROON" 



Practically the entire fleet is always in commission. The estimated expenditures. 
of the navy in 1909 were : $104,982,025 ; and early in 1914, $111,988,035. 

The peace strength of the fleet is : 

Effective at end of 

1913 1914 1915 

Dreadnoughts 17 19 21 

Pre-Dreadnought Battleships 20 20 20 

Coast service Battleships 28 28 

Battle Cruisers 3 5 7 

Armored Cruisers 9 9 9 

Protected Cruisers 36 38 38 

Cruisers and Gunboats 14 13 15 

Destroyers 140 152 164 

Torpedo boats (old) 47 47 47 

Submarines 21 27 

Hydroplanes .10 30 

The fleet is divided between the Baltic (Kiel) and the North Seas 

(Wilhelmshaven), which are strategically linked by the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal 
across the Schleswig-Holstein Peninsula. 




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172 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




DREADNOUGHT "KAISER" 




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174 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




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THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




BATTLESHIP "LOTHRINGEN* 




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GERMANY. 



177- 




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INTERIOR OF SUBMARINE 



178 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




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GERMANY. 



179 




ZEPPELIN 




AEROPLANE 



180 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 



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TYPES OF AEROPLANES 




Russia 




NICHOLAS II 





THE CZAREVITCH ALEXIS 
This Picture Was Taken by His Majesty, the Czar 



186 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




THE CZARINA AND HER DAUGHTERS 




THE EMPRESS ALEXANDRA FEODOROVNA 

THE GRAND DUCHESS OLGA 

THE GRAND DUCHESS TATIANA 

IN UNIFORM AS COLONELS 



RUSSIA. 



187 




FATHER AND SON 



NICHOLAS II. 

The Emperor Nicholas. II, was born at Petrograd on May 18, 1868, of the 
Emperor Alexander III and the Empress Marie Feodorovna (sister of Queen 
Alexandra of England). He was carefully educated as heir to the throne and 
began his military career at thirteen, when he was appointed ataman of the Cos- 
sacks. Special attention was paid to the study of mathematics, the physical 
sciences and political science. He continued his military career, serving in var- 
ious regiments, among them the famous Preobrajenski. He travelled con- 
siderably and in 1890 set out with his cousin, Prince George of Greece, for a 
tour of China, Japan and India. Previous to this he had been appointed Presi- 
dent of the Commission to prepare designs for the Trans-Siberian Railway, and 
while in Vladivostok in 1891 turned the first sod for this road. He returned to 
Europe by the overland route. 

He ascended the throne on November 1, 1894 and on the 26th of the same 
month married the Princess Alix of Hesse-Darmstadt. Their coronation took 
place at Moscow in May, 1896 with gorgeous ceremonial; and in August of the 
same year, he paid a series of visits to the Emperors of Austria and Germany, 
the King of Denmark, the Queen of England and the President of France. In 
1898 he made his famous peace proposal which led to the first Peace Conference 
at the Hague (1889) and the founding of the first Court of Arbitration. 
The Czar resembles somewhat his cousin, King George of England, but his fea- 
tures incline more to the Slavic than Danish type. He is described as having 



188 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 



His tastes are simple and he spends as much time as possible with his family at 
Tsarkoe-Selo, his palace about 15 miles from Petrograd. 

The imperial couple have five children. The grand Duchess Olga (b. Novem- 
ber 15, 1895) is very clever and is the intellectual member of the family. The 
next daughter, Grand Duchess Tatiana (b. June 10, 1897), is of a more lively 
disposition and prefers long rides with her father to books. The Grand Duchesses 
Marie (b. June 26, 1899) and Anastasia (b. June 18, 1901) are still in the 
school-room and rarely appear in public. The youngest child, the Czarevich 
Alexis (b. August 12, 1904), is the heir apparent. He met with a serious 
accident a few years ago, but is rapidly recovering his former health and 
vigor. 



THE CZAR KISSING THE 
SENTINEL ON THE MORNING OF 
EASTER DAY 





THE DOWAGER EMPRESS 
MARIE FEODOROVNA 

The Empress was the Princess Dagmar of Denmark 
and is the Sister of Queen Alexandra of England 



RUSSIA. 



189 





THE GRAND DUKE GENERAL SUKHOM- ADMIRAL GREGOWITCH, 

NIKOLAS, COMMANDER- LINOFF, MINISTER COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF ' 
IN-CHIEF OF THE ARMY OF WAR OF THE NAVY 



GENERAL NICHOLAS JANUCK- 

KEWITCH, CHIEF OF THE 

GENERAL STAFF 





M. SAZONOFF 
MINISTER OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS 



THE HOUSE OF ROMANOV 



The Romanovs trace their descent from Andrei 
Kolyla, who is said to have come to Moscow from 
Prussia about 1314. He entered the service of 
the Grand Duke Semen and acquired lands. His 
great-grandson, Sakhariya Ivanovich was a boyar of 
Vasilii V, Grand Duke of Moscow (1425-62). The 
family takes its name from his grandson, Roman, 
whose daughter Anastasia Romanovna, married Czar 
Ivan IV. The Romanovs were also connected with 
the ancient family of Rurik, through the marriage 
of Anastasia's brother with the Princess Eudoxia 
Alexandrovna, who was descended from the Grand 
Dukes of Suzdal- Vladimir. The Romanovs passed 
through a period of decline during the troubles 
which followed the death of Ivan IV the Terrible, 
but later recovered their fortunes. In 1610, Feodor 
was imprisoned by the King of Poland, but on ac- 
count of his virtues and piety was held in high re- 
pute. He was released and made Patriarch of Moscow, and his son, Michael 
was elected Czar in 1613. His descendants ruled until 1730 when the male 
line became extinct and the succession was continued through the female line. 
Peter the Great's eldest daughter, Anna, had married Charles Frederick of 
Holstein-Gottorp. With the accession of her son, Peter III (1762), begins 
the present reigning dynasty of Holstein-Gottorp or Oldenburg-Romanov. 

The House of Oldenburg-Holstein, which has furnished so many sovereigns 
to Europe and now counts among its members the Kings of Denmark, Greece 
and Norway, has been very closely connected with the Russian royal house. All 
the Czars since Peter III have married German princesses and hence German 
and Danish influences have been very pronounced in Russia during the 19th 
century. Alexander III married Princess Dagmar of Denmark, and their son,. 
Nicholas II, is thus connected with the royal family of Denmark, and through 
his aunt, Queen Alexandra of England, with the English royal family. 





RULERS OF THE HOUSE OF ROMANOV 
Michael Feodorowitch, Patriarch Philaret of Moscow, Father 

of Michael, Alexis Michailowitch 

The Empress Elizabeth, Pet.er the Great, Catherine II the Great 

Alexander I, Nicholas I, Alexander II 





HISTORY 

In the ninth century, a Slavonic race occupied the basin of the Dneiper. 
It is said that the Slavs invited three brothers, Rurik, Sineus and Truvor, to 
come from the North and rule over them. It is certain, however, that the 
Scandanavians invaded in force and settled around Novgorod about 862; Nestor 
calls these people Varangians and they seem to have gradually amalgamated with 
the Slavs. The brothers brought with them Askold and Dir, two adventurers like 
themselves. They soon quarreled with Rurik and set out for Constantinople to 
find their fortune. On the way they conquered Kiev, a flourishing city in the 
hands of the Khazars, and from here in 851 marched on Constantinople, and 
plundered the city. At the death of his brothers, Rurik annexed their dominions 
and took the title of Grand Prince (Veliki kniaz). He died in 879 leaving the 
regency of his lands and the guardianship of his son Igor to Oleg. Oleg cap- 
tured Smolensk and Kiev, and advanced upon Constantinople. Igor continued 
the wars against the Greeks, who finally were glad to purchase peace. His son, 
Sviatoslav, who was the first prince to bear a Slavonic name, won fame in his 
campaigns against the Petchenegs, a Mongol tribe inhabiting the basin of the Don. 
At his death, according to the apanage system, his territory was divided among his 
three sons, of whom the most famous was Vladimir. He had obtained Novogorod, 
as his share, but, after killing his brothers, became sole ruler. He also added 
Galicia, subdued some of the Lithuanian and Livonian tribes, took Chersoneus 
in the Crimea, and sought the hand of the Princess Anne (daughter of the 
Byzantine Emperor) in marriage. This request was granted on condition that 
he embrace Christianity. Accordingly he was baptized at Constantinople in 
988. On his return to Kiev he converted the whole population. At his death the 
land was divided among his sons, of whom Yaroslav is the most famous as he 
ordered the first codification of the Russian law, the Russkaia Pravda. 

According to the apanage system, which seems to have prevailed from very 
early times, the Russian land was a huge family estate belonging to the Rurik 
line, each member of which considered himself entitled to a share of it. It was 
therefore divided into a number of independent principalities held loosely together 
by a sort of patriarchal authority, vested in the senior member of the family, 
who ruled in Kiev, but this position was not hereditary from father to son. It 
was always given to the senior member of the dynasty, and the same principle was 
applied to all the other principalities. Hence, with the constant family quarrels 
and the difficulty of deciding the question of seniority, the land was continually 
being divided. From 1054 to 1224, there were 64 principalities, 293 princes 
claimed authority and S3 civil wars were waged. Kiev was pillaged again and 
again and finally left a prey to barbarian tribes from the steppe, and the Russians 
were obliged to fall back to the regions of the Upper Volga, where new prin- 
cipalities were formed — Vladimir, Tver, Moscow. The princes lost all feeling for 




IVAN THE TERRIBLE 



RUSSIA. 



195 




family relationships and were constant rivals. About this time Novogorod set 
up a form of municipal republic. The rivalry between all these left the land an 
easy prey to the Mongols, who settled themselves around the lower Volga and 
for many years received tribute from the Russians. Under Dimitri Donskoi of 
M°s c ° w '. the Russians united and defeated the Tatars in the battle of Kulikovo 
( lSiSU) , in which the Tatars are said to have lost 100,000 men. This victory gave 
immense prestige to the princes of Moscow, and, under Ivan III the Great Basil 
and Ivan IV (1462-1584), Moscow absorbed all the other principalities ' 

During the reign of Ivan III, who married the niece of the Emperor Con- 
stantly Palaeologus of Constantinople, Byzantine civilization was introduced 
Ivan IV was crowned Czar of all Russia in 1547, annexed Kazan and Astrakan 
opened trade relations with England, by way of the White Sea and North Cape 
and waged constant war with Lithuania and Poland in the hope of gaining an 
outlet to the Baltic. His successors were not able to imitate his autocratic power, 
and the country was in great danger of falling to the Poles, when the people rose 
a?' ^ x P elled the lnva ders, and in a grand national assembly elected as Czar 
Michael Romanov, who was connected by marriage with the preceding dynasty 
The country accepted the new family and order was re-established. The Ro- 
manovs did not distinguish themselves greatly until Peter the Great (1689-1725) 
He ruled with a vigorous hand, defeated Sweden at the battle of Poltava (1709) 
acquired Ingna, Karelia, Livonia, Esthonia and part of Finland by the Treaty 
of Nystad (1721), reformed the army, laid the foundation of the navy, intro- 
duced Western European customs, built his capital at Petrograd, and had himself 
proclaimed Emperor of all Russia (1711). The male line became extinct in 1730 
and the accession passed into the hands of members of the female line who had 
intermarried with German princes, and German influences predominated under 
^SU^T aS Biren ' M{innich and Ostermann. Under the German Catherine II 
(1762-96), consort of Czar Peter III, Russia was recognized as one of the Great 
Powers. Catherine introduced Western art and literature, accomplished admin- 
istrative reforms, allied herself with Prussia, England and Denmark, and secured 
a considerable share of Poland. 




196 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




Under Alexander I (1801-25), liberal reforms were attempted: the Council 
of Empire was erected, the idea of a constitution was discussed, schemes of edu- 
cation proposed, and emancipation of the serfs begun in the Baltic provinces. 
He resisted Napoleon at first, but concluded with him the Treaty of Tilsit, by 
which he hoped to divide with Napoleon the control of Europe. His pretensions 
to power, however, caused Napoleon to undertake the campaign of Moscow, 
which brought Napoleon to Waterloo and Alexander to a predominant position 
in European politics. Nicholas I (1825-55) reacted from the liberal policy of 
Alexander, reformed the army and navy, constructed railways and advanced 
industry and commerce. Alexander II (1855-81), emancipated the serfs, re- 
organized the judicial administration and inaugurated local self-government, 
relaxed the strict censorship of the Press under which a new imaginative and 
critical literature arose, producing some of the greatest writers in all literature 
(Tolstoy, Dostoievsky, Turgeniev). These reforms, however, had to work- 
slowly, and the Government announced that nothing more was to be done until 
the country had time to adjust itself. This produced great dissatisfaction among 
the younger generation, filled with vague ideas of an indeterminate millenium. 
and the reaction led to the rise of Nihilism. Though Alexander's foreign policy 
was not successful in Europe, in Asia it won for him Siberia. Upon the assasina- 
tion of Alexander II, Alexander III' succeeded and entered upon a frankly 
reactionary policy, and his successor, Nicholas II (1894), has endeavored 
to combine the policies of his father and grandfather. He strengthened relations 
with France, joining the Triple Entente, and endeavored to extend Russian 
influence in the Far East, but received a severe check in the Russo-Japanese War 
of 1905. The old liberal movements and conspiracies now began to revive, and 
the Government decided to issue the Manifesto of October 30, 1905, promising 
to convoke a legislative assembly. The first Duma met on May 10, 1906. 

Russia comprises one-seventh of the land surface of the world and has an 
area in Europe of 1,996,743 sq. mi. The total area, including the Asiatic posses- 
sions, is 8,647,657 sq. mi. The total population is 171,059,900, which is increasing 
at the rate of 2,500,000 per annum. Poland contains 12,776,300, Finland, 3,140,000, 
Caucasus, 12,288,100, Siberia, 9,577,900, and Central Asian possessions, 10,727,- 
000. The Slavs, including the Poles, constitute about 63 per cent of the popula- 
tion, Turco-Tartars about 10 per- cent, Finns about 2 per cent, and Jews about 3 



RUSSIA. 



197 



per cent ; the rest of the population being made up of Lithuanians, Germans, 
Armenians and a variety of Asiatic peoples. 

Since 1905, Russia has been a constitutional monarchy, ruled equally by the 
Emperor, the Duma and the Council ot Empire. According to the Law of June 
16, 1907, the Duma consists ot members elected for 5 years by the electoral bodies 
of the governments and the great cities (Petrograd, Moscow, Warsaw, Kiev, Lodz, 
Odessa and Riga). The council of Empire consists of an equal number of elected 
members and members appointed by the Emperor. They serve 9 years ; one-third 
elected every 3 years. No measure can become a law without the consent of these 
two houses. The power of the Emperor is only limited by the fundamental laws 
of the country, and the crown descends in order of primogeniture, with preference 
to the male heir. The Emperor is also assisted by a council of Ministers (the 
heads of the Imperial Court, Foreign Affairs, War and Marine, Finance, Com- 
merce and Industry, Interior, Agriculture, Ways and Communications, Justice, 
Public Instruction), and dependent upon this are two other councils — the Holy 
Synod and the Senate. 

The vast majority of the population are engaged in agriculture. The country 
is enormously rich in minerals of all kinds, but manufacturing and mining are only 
beginning to be developed. The exports 1913-14 amounted to about $820,000,- 
000; the imports to $790,295,000. 

The Russian dependencies are : 
Bokhara, in Central Asia (1868; 83,000 sq. mi.; pop. 1,250,000). 
Khiva (1872; 22,320 sq. mi.; pop. 800,000). 




1. ORDER OF ST. ANDREW 

2. MILITARY ORDER OF MERIT 

3. ORDER OF ST. ALEX. NEWSKI 

4. ORDER OF ST. VLADIMIR 

9. ORDER OF ST. 



5. ORDER OF THE WHITE EAGLE 

6. ORDER OF ST. CATHERINE 

7. ORDER OF ST. STANISLAS 

8. ORDER OF ST. ANNA 
GEORGE 



198 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




A COSSACK OF THE DON, ONE HUNDRED YEARS AGO 



THE ARMY 



The early Russian armies were composed of soldiers recruited at first from 
the people, and called drowjini. By the 16th century they were recruited only 
from the court and the nobles, and were enrolled at the command of the Czar. 
\t each summons, the nobles, mounted on horseback and followed by their 
retainers and slaves, set forth, an ill-disciplined and irregular force. Ivan IV 
the Terrible was the first to organize infantry. He recruited it from the Cossacks 
as a permanent force and it formed his army. Thus originated the famous 
Strelitz. It was a fierce, undisciplined band, owning no law nor regular estab- 
lishment and was as often to be found in support of the throne as of the nobles. 
Michael Romanov, fearing to disband so dangerous a force, called in Swedish, 
Dutch and Scotch mercenaries, but these were not in favor with the boyars 
and soon broke their contract and departed. The Czar Alexis made great 
efforts to establish discipline, appointing foreign officers, and succeeded in 
holding in check the Strelitz, which then numbered 40,000. The Russians at 
this time had also artillery corps, but they were clumsy, ill-managed, and with- 
out experience. 




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201 




COSSACKS OF THE LIFE GUARD 



Peter the Great created the modern army, re-organizing the old forces 
on European plans. He abolished the Strelitz (1698), established universal 
conscription (including serf and slave), allowed promotion from the ranks, 
created the Imperial Guard and instituted a corps d' elite (recruited from the 
noble families of Moscow). This army did good service for Peter in his 
wars with Charles XII of Sweden and two regiments of it survive to-day—the 
Preobrazhenski and the Semenovski. During the 18th and 19th centuries, 
the army was remodelled, first on Prussian and then on French lines. Under 
Alexander II (1855-81), the general morale of the troops was greatly im- 
proved and they received better treatment, corporal punishment was abolished 
in the guard, and applied sparingly in the line. In 1866, the Cossack army 
of the Azov was abolished and in 1868 the strength of the active army was 
fixed at 778,000 infantry, 54,000 cavalry, 74,000 artillery and 17,000 miscel- 
laneous In 1870 conscription extended to the nobility (the Cossacks retained 
their separate organization). Under Alexander III (1881-94), the time re- 
quired for mobilization was reduced, the cavalry arm was strengthened, the 
artillery train service reserves were increased and fortresses built along the 
frontiers. The enormous development of Russian military power since 1892 
has been the marvel of military history. 

In the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05, Russia showed what she could 
do in the way of moving troops quickly over long distances, and the opera- 
tions generally proved that the fighting power of the Russian maintained 
the traditions of Zorndorf, Borodino and Sevastopol. The proverbial stub- 
bornness of the rank and file is the distinctive quality of the Russian soldiers 
and adds a formidable element to the armies of the Czar. Equally remarkable 



202 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




COSSACKS OF THE VOLGA 



is the new power of distribution. Formerly it was usual to count upon 
one campaign at least elapsing before Russia could effectively join in Euro- 
pean wars, and the greater part of her losses in the Crimean War was due to 
the enormous distances which had to be traversed on foot, but with the in- 
crease of railways and the general development of the country these factors 
have been greatly reduced. 

Profiting by the lessons of the Japanese War, Russia has thoroughly 
re-organized her army, the Duma in 1910 voting liberal sums for this pur- 
pose. Three new army corps were formed (Army of European Russia, Army 
of the Caucasus, and the Asiatic Army). These are practically distinct and 
the term of service varies slightly for each. The army was also redistributed, 
a central group being established in the Moscow-Kazan region. The army 
is divided among 27 corps in Europe, 3 in the Caucasus, 2 in Turkestan, 
and 5 in Siberia and the Far East. 

Military service is universal and compulsory, from the age of 20 to 42. 
About 1,000,000 men (exclusive of Cossacks), annually attain the age for joining 
the army, and exemptions are numerous, as only a little more than one- 
third are required for service. Speaking generally service is for 3 years in 
the active army (4 in the cavalry and horse artillery) ; the soldier then passes 



204 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




into the reserve (Zapas) for 15 or 14 years, undergoing 2 periods of training 
of 6 weeks each, and then into the territorial or Opolchenie for 5 years. The 
Opolchenie is divided into two classes : the first includes, besides the men who 
have served in the active and reserve, the young men surplus to the annual 
contingent, and all are liable in time of war; the second is the levy en masse 
and contains all those exempt from actual service, and also the older class of 
the surplus men who have all had a certain amount of training. 

In the Asiatic Army, the men are Russians, recruited from military colo- 
nists, with the exception of a few Turkomar irregular horse (Jigits). The 
Cossacks hold their lands by military tenure and are liable to service for life. 
They are almost entirely mounted. Every Cossack becomes liable to serve as 
soon as he has completed his 18th year, and finds his own horse and equip- 
ment, as in the Indian Sillader cavalry. They are trained for 2 years at 
home and then enter the first category regiment of their district, in which 
they remain 4 years. They then pass for 4 years to the second category, 
remaining at home. The next 4 years are passed in the third category, when they 
retain their equipment but no horses, and they train for three weeks each 
year. Finally there is a period of 5 years in the reserve. Besides this every 
Cossack of any age can be called out in time of war. These rules apply to 
Don Cossacks; for the others the terms are slightly different. The peace 
effective of the Cossacks is stated to be 66,000, with 52,400 horses, but it is 
probable that not more than 58,000 are permanently with the colors. The 
war strength is given as about 150,000. 

The present peace strength of the Russian army is as follows : — 

Europe and the Caucasus Asiatic Russia 

Infantry 627,000 83,000 

Cavalry 116,000 14,000 

Artillery 138,000 15,000 

Engineers 34,000 8,000 

Army Services 34,000 5,000 

Total 949,000 125,000 

Including Cossacks and Frontier Guards, the total peace strength is 
1,400,000 (80,000 in Turkestan and Semirietschenk and 28,000 in Siberia). 

The war strength of the active army consists of about 56,500 officers and 
2,855,000 men. To these figures must be added the available reserve (includ- 
ing the Opolchenie, estimated at 1,064,000; Frontier battalions, 41,000; Cossacks, 
150,000, which brings the war strength to 5,400,000 men. 



206 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




BLESSING THE REGIMENTAL COLORS 




CAVALRY USING THEIR HORSES AS A SHIELD 




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208 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 



















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CUIRASSIER OF THE 
IMPERIAL GUARD IN 
DRESS UNIFORM 



OFFICER OF THE 

IMPERIAL GUARD IN FIELD 

UNIFORM 




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SCENES OF MILITARY LIFE 



210 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




EXPLODING MINES 




CHANGING THE GUARD 



COSSACKS EXECUTING 
A DARING FEAT OF BALANCE 




212 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




FORTRESS ARTILLERY 




FIELD ARTILLERY 



RUSSIA. 



215 




STAFF OFFICERS CONFERRING 




A THRILLING JUMP 



216 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




ARMORED AUTOMOBILES 




AEROPLANE CORPS 




AEROPLANE RISING 




THE CZAR 



THE NAVY 



To Peter the Great (1689-1725), Russia owes the foundation of her navy. 
Previous to him no serious attempts were made to secure a fleet sufficient 
to protect her Black Sea coast, and the lack of good harbors rendered it 
impossible to maintain one in the north. Peter, however, was determined to 
make his country a maritime power. The White Sea was impracticable, 
Sweden menaced the Baltic, the Caspian alone remained. This was of little 
value, however, while the Turks held Azov. Peter attempted to capture this 
port from the land but failed. He saw that a fleet must be obtained. He 
immediately sent to Prussia and Austria for as many skilled workmen as 
money could buy, and set them at work in the forests of the Don. He lived 
with them night and day, until the fleet was built. Finally a fleet of 2 war- 
ships, 23 galleys, 4 fireships, and numerous smaller crafts besieged Azov and 
on July 18, 1696, the Turks were obliged to surrender. Peter established 
a naval station at Tazanrog, at the head of the Sea of Azov, and recommended 
to the Council of Boyars the urgent need of a powerful fleet in this region. 
Though successive rulers encouraged the navy, Russia did not have an 
important fleet. It was usually led and manned by foreigners. In 1770, 
during the reign of Catherine II, a fleet under the nominal command of her 
favorite, Orloff, but actually commanded by two former officers of the British 
Navy (John Elphinstone and Samuel Greig), gained some success against the 
Turks in the Levant. The fleet did not see much service until the Crimean 
War (1854), and then won little fame. 

The Russian navy labors under peculiar difficulties which do not affect 
other countries, as owing to the geographical situation of the country she 
must maintain 4 distinct fleets, the most important of which are the Black 
Sea and Baltic fleets. Under Nicholas II every effort has been made to in- 
crease the strength and efficiency of the navy, and he has encouraged Russian 



218 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




shipbuilding to the extent of entrusting to Russian firms the construction 
of 3 dreadnoughts (1911) for the Black Sea fleet. The building program has 
steadily increased since the Russo-Japanese War, and on April 1, 1911, Vice- 
Admiral Grigowitch introduced a bill providing for a definite standard for 
the Russian fleets. According to it, by 1924 the Baltic fleet is to have 16 
battleships, 8 armored cruisers, 16 other cruisers, 92 torpedo boats and 24 
submarines. The strength of the Black Sea fleet was to be "half as strong 
again as any possible combination of fleets in those waters" and it was de- 
cided to ask for annual appropriations for this fleet, as it was not possible 
at that time to know the exact naval strength of the other powers in that 
region. On June 19, 1912, the Duma appropriated $251,000,000 for the con- 
struction of 4 battleships and 4 cruisers for the Baltic ; 2 cruisers for the Black 
Sea, 2 for the Pacific, 3 flotillas, each of 12 destroyers, for the Baltic, 12 sub- 
marines for the Baltic, and 6 for Vladivostok; the dockyards and arsenals 
were to be enlarged and improved. 

The number of men for the navy is fixed annually by law, and is recruited 
by conscription. While on the active list, the men are not allowed to marry. 
The administration is under the control of the minister of marine, who is 
at the head of the twelve departments on naval affairs. The admiralty 




MERCANTILE ENSIGN 




DREADNOUGHT "SEVASTOPOL' 



220 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




FORECASTLE OF THE ARMORED CRUISER "RUR1K" 



council which consists of the Minister of Marine, the assistant minister of 
marine and 5 flag officers, deals with everything connected with naval legislation 
and establishments. 

The personnel in 1910 was about 53,500, including officers and men. 

The following table gives the strength of the Russian Fleet in October, 
1913. 

Built Building 

Battleships 9 7 

Coast defence -. . 1 

Battle cruisers 4 

Armored cruisers 6 

Protected cruisers 

1st class 6 6 

2nd class 2 

3rd class 2 

Torpedo vessels 3 

Destroyers 96 9 

Torpedo boats 26 

Submarines 29 7 

In addition, Russia has 200 aeroplanes and 12 dirigibles (10 building). 
The naval expenditure for 1913-14 amounted to $121,247,270. 



RUSSIA. 



221 




SAILORS AT REST 




ARMORED CRUISER "RURIK" 



222 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




GUNNERY SCHOOL TRAINING SHIP "IMPERATOR ALEXANDER II' 




''.IWWWW-^,^, 



HHB 



BATTLESHIP "ANDREI PERVOSWANNI' 



RUSSIA. 



223 




BATTLESHIP "PANTELIMON" OF THE BLACK SEA FLEET 




ARMORED CRUISER "ADMIRAL MAKAROFF" 




DESTROYER "BOYEVOF 



224 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




SUBMARINE "ALLIGATOR' 




SUBMARINE "PESKAR" 




DESTROYER "BOURAKOFF" 







Belgium 




ALBERT I 





QUEEN ELIZABETH 



230 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




PRINCESS MARIA-JOSE 





PRINCE LEOPOLD 



PRINCE CHARLES THEODORE 



BELGIUM. 



231 




LEOPOLD II 



ALBERT I. 



King Albert of Belgium was born on April 18, 1875, second son of Prince 
Philippe of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Count of Flanders and of Princess Marie of 
Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, and is the third of the Coburg line to occupy the 
throne of Belgium. By the sudden death of his brother, Prince Baldwin, in 
1891, he came in line of succession, and by the death of his father in 1905, 
became heir apparent, as King Leopold's only son had died while yet a child. 
His military education began at the age of fifteen at the Brussels Military 
Academy, and he entered the army in 1892, being promoted within two years 
to the rank of lieutenant general. He continued his education, devoting 
special attention to mechanics, economics and social questions, gaining prac- 
tical knowledge of his country's industries, by personally visiting factories 
and mines, even working as a miner. In 1898 he visited the Congo and the 
United States, spending some time in the Far West. On October 2, 1900, he 
married the Princess Elizabeth of Bavaria. Queen Elizabeth is one of the most 
learned princesses of Europe, following the scholarly traditions of her house, 
and holds a degree as Doctor of Medicine while she often gives her services to the 
poor. King Albert succeeded his uncle, Leopold II, on December 17, 1909, and 
has made himself most popular with his people. 

The King and Queen have three children : Prince Leopold (b. on Novem- 
ber 3, 1901), Prince Charles Theodore (b. on October 10, 1903), and Princess 
Maria-Jose (b. on August 4, 1906). 




LEOPOLD I 



THE HOUSE OF WETTIN. 



Coburg came into the possession of the Wettin family in the fourteenth? 
century. The Wettins derive their name from their castle in Wettin on the- 
Saale. The earliest known ancestor, Dietrich, Count of Hassegau or Hosgau, 
died in 982, and his sons, Dedo I and Frederick, received lands from the 
Wends. Dedo's son, Dietrich II, inherited these possessions and married 
Mathilda, daughter of the Margrave of Meissen. Their son, Dedo II, inher- 
ited the Saxon East Mark and Meissen. Thimo, who built a castle at Wettin, 
was the first to be called by this name. Conrad (1156) divided his lands among 
his five sons and the subsequent history of the family is identified with the ruling 
families of Meissen, Saxony, and the four Saxon duchies. 

When the Wettins became Electors of Saxony, Coburg went to the Ern- 
estine branch and passed from one branch to another until it was assigned to 
John Ernest (d. 1729), who took the title of Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. 
His two sons,Christian Ernest and Francis Josiah, ruled the land jointly, but at the 
death of Christian the principle of primogeniture was adopted. The fourth 
son of Duke Francis (d. 1806) married the Princess Charlotte of England and 
in 1830 he accepted the offer of the Belgian crown and became Leopold I of 
Belgium. His grandson, Albert, is the present King of Belgium. 





Originally Belgium formed part of the Nether- 
lands or Low Countries. Julius Caesar (57 B. C.) 
! in his "Commentaries" describes the Gallo-Celtic tribes 
dwelling in the section 'west of the Rhine, giving 
them the general name of Belgae. Under Augustus 
(15 B. C.) the conquered territory was formed into 
the province of Gallica Belgica, and the people became 
thoroughly Romanized. (For early history see 
France and Germany). By the Treaty of Verdun 
(843), Charlemagne gave the central portion of his 
empire (which included the Netherlands) to his son 
Lothair. At his death the northern part of the 
kingdom went to his son Lothair II, and was called 
Lotharii, later Lotharingia or Lorraine. The remote- 
ness of Lower Lorraine favored the growth 
of independent duchies, chief of which were the Duchy 
of Brabant, the countries of Hamault, Holland, 
Gelderland, Limburg, Luxemburg and Flanders, 
and the bishoprics of Utrecht and Liege. During the 9th and 10th centuries 
the country suffered cruelly from the attacks of the Northmen but by the 
close of the 11th century feudalism was well established. The Crusades 
had a ready appeal for the Netherlander, from whom came such leaders as 
Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lower Lorraine, leader of the First Crusade and 
K^goT Jerusalem. The Third Crusade called out Floris III of Holland, Philip 
■of Flanders, Otto I of Gelderland, and Henry I of Brabant, while the _Crusade o 
1203 eave the crown of Constantinople to Baldwin of Flanders. The Crusades 
genera^ had a most favorable influence upon the Netherla nd s broad enu^he 
People and increasing their wealth and commerce. This last had an important 
uTfluence on the growth of the chartered towns, the most important of which were 
Bruges, Ghent ^nd Ypres. ^ ^ .^^ employed 

chiefly in the weaving of cloth and woolen goods. The cities by means of 
the oyanizatioTof t?ade guilds were soon powerful enough to oppose the 
nobles and under Jacques van Artevelde (1285-1345) of Ghent reached their 
greatest height of power, but after his death they declined, and the ^Nether- 
lands, by purchase, marriage, or conquest passed gradually into .the ontrol 
of the House of Burgundy, and later, by the marriage of Mary of B urgundy 
to Maximilian of Austria, to the Hapsburgs. The Emperor Charles V gave 



234 THE EUROPEAN WAR. 



the Netherlands to his son, Philip II of Spain (October 25, 1555). For the 
next twenty-five years, Philip, through his generals the Duke of Alva and 
later Don John of Austria, waged a series of wars against William of Orange, 
who stood for the Protestant party. By this time, however, the acute rivalry 
between the two nationalities, forced a break between the Belgians and the 
Dutch. By the League of Arras (January 5, 1579), Hainault, Artois and 
Douai formed themselves into a league for the defense of the Catholic re- 
ligion; the union of Utrecht (Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland and Zut- 
phen) followed on the 29th of the month and from tnis date the separate 
histories of Belgium and Holland, though Belgium remained under Spanish 
influence and was known as the Spanish Netherlands. 

During the War of the Spanish Succession, Belgium was the scene of the 
hardest fighting. By the peace of Utrecht (1714) the country passed to the 
Emperor Charles VI and was known as the Austrian Netherlands. At the end 
of the 18th century discontent at Austrian rule had reached such proportions 
that on December 2, 1789, Brussels rebelled and drove out the Austrians. Brabant 
then declared her independence and on January 2, 1790 the Belgian United 
States came into effect. Belgium did not long enjoy her new position for she 
was conquered by the French from 1790 to 1794. In 1815 she was 
united to Holland under the Prince of Orange, but the union met with 
great opposition among the Belgians, by race, language and religion 
estranged from the Dutch. They revolted in 1830 and at the request of the 
King of the Netherlands, representatives of the five great powers met in 
London to arrange the differences between Belgium and Holland. The 
congress agreed on the independence of Belgium as an hereditary constitu- 
tional monarchy. On December 20, 1830 the dissolution of the Netherlands 
was declared, a constitution modelled on the British was drawn up, and Prince 
Leopold of Saxe-Coburg (widower of Princess Charlotte of England) was 
elected King. The Grand Duchy of Luxemburg and Maestricht was divided 
between Holland and Belgium, the Scheldt was declared open to both coun- 
tries, the national debt was divided and the neutrality of Belgium was 
guaranteed. Under Leopold the country prospered. His son, Leopold II, 
made Flemish the official language of the Flemish provinces (French for 
the others), and settled the educational question. Proportional represent- 
ation was adopted and the Congo was annexed (1908). His nephew, Albert, 
succeeded on December 17, 1909. 

Belgium has an area of 11,373 sq. mi., and a population of 7,423,784. 
There are 2,822,005 people who speak only French, and 2,574,805, who speak 
onlv Flemish. The north is chiefly agricultural, and the south chiefly indus- 
trial. The country is rich in coal and iron, producing 23,054,000 metric tons, 
of coal in 1911. The success of the industries generally is due in great part to the 
high standard of technical education prevailing. The exports for 1913-14 
amounted to $725,225,000 and the imports to $916,725,000 

Beleian Congo has an area of 909,654 sq. mi., and a population (chiefly 
of Bantu origin) of about 15,000,000. 

According to the constitution of 1831, Belgium is a constitutional mon- 
archy, with the executive power vested in the King and his ministers, and the 
legislative vested jointly in the King, Senate and House of Representatives. 
The Senate consists of members elected for 8 years (total number 120, of 
whom 27 are elected by the provincial councils) partly directly and partly in- 
directly. The Representatives are all elected directly by the electoral body. 
Manhood suffrage prevails, based upon the plural vote and proportional 
representation of minorities. 




THE ARMY. 



The Belgium army may be said to have arisen during the 16th century, 
when the long struggle against Spain forced the United Provinces to maintain 
an army During the wars against Louis XIV and in the war of the Spanish 
Succession, the Dutch and Belgians had a force of 100,000 men, which in- 
cluded, however, many English and Scottish regiments. At Malplaquet (1/09) 
the flower of the army perished and by 1790 it numbered only 36,000 men. 
Conquered by the French during 1790-95, the army was thoroughly re-organ- 
ized on French lines and served the Empire well. 

Since 1830 Belgium has maintained an excellent army. On December 
14 1900 and again on June 19, 1913 laws were passed for its organization. 
The army is recruited partly by voluntary enlistment and partly by conscrip- 
tion (49 per cent, of the annual contingent). The voluntary recruits serve 
from 15 to 24 months (according to the arm) with the colors, and for the 
remainder of the 8 years in the first line army ; 5 years more are spent in the 
2nd line of reserves, with periodical training. The compulsory recruit 
serves 15 months in the infantry, garrison artillery and engineers, 1 year 9 
months in the field artillery and 2 years in the cavalry. The other service 
is the same The annual levy is small and substitution is permitted. _ All 
physically fit and not otherwise needed, are enrolled in the Garde Civique 
which has the duty of maintaining public order, but can furnish in time of 
war about 45,000 men (with a reserve of 100,000) for garrison duty and use 
along the lines of communication. The Gendarmerie, a semi-military corps 
half of it mounted, furnishes a squadron for each field division as divisional 
cavalry. 



238 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




INFANTRY READY FOR ACTION 



The peace establishment in 1913 was as follows: 

Officers Men 

General Staff 38 

Staff 46 

Administration 271 437 

Medical Corps 230 

Veterinary 45 

Provincial Staff 34 

Infantry 1,745 25,070 

Cavalry 304 5,671 

Artillery 636 9,041 

Train 29 291 

Engineers 164 1,551 

Civilians 200 

Various 1,800 

Total 3,542 44,061 

According to the law of 1913, the peace establishment was to be main- 
tained at a strength of 57,886. In time of war, with the aid of all classes of 
the reserves, this force could be raised to 340,000. Belgium also has an aero- 
nautical company, consisting of an aeronautical school and several sections 
of 4 aeroplanes each. In 1914 she had 1 dirigible (1 building) and 40 aero- 
planes. 

The army expenditure voted in 1914 amounted to $20,219,250. 



BELGIUM 



239 




'MARCHING' 




"RESTING' 



240 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




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FIELD 
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242 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 



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1. CIVIL ORDER 

2. ORDER OF LEOPOLD 

3. CIVIL ORDER OF MERIT 




Luxemburg 




GRAND DUCHESS MARIE 







GRAND DUCHESS 
MARIE ANNE 



THE LATE GRAND DUKE 
WILLIAM 



GRAND DUCHESS MARIE 



The Grand Duchess Marie Adelaide was born on June 14, 1894, the oldest 
daughter of the Grand Duke William and of the Grand Duchess Marie Anne, 
who is a sister of Dom Miguel of Braganza. On the death of her father on 
February 25, 1912, she succeeded to the throne, but as she did not attain her 
majority until June of that year, her mother acted as regent. In June she was 
installed as sovereign of Luxemburg and at the same time came into possession 
of the large fortune of the Nassau family. 

The Grand Duchess has five sisters: the Princesses Charlotte Adelgonde 
(b. Jan. 28, 1896), Hilda Sophie (b. Feb. 15, 1897), Antoinette Roberte (b. 
Oct. 7, 1899), Elizabeth Marie (b. March 7, 1901), and Sophie Caroline (b. 
Feb. 14, 1902). 



3f? ^fc HlSTDRY 3|? 2fc 

Wedged in between Belgium, Germany and France, lies the Grand Duchy 
of Luxemburg. About 50 miles long and 30 miles wide, this tiny triangular 
country has been the theatre for the whole drama of Western European history. 
Many countries have fought for it ; many rulers cast envious eyes upon it ; many 
peoples settled on its lands, — but all through its crowded career the Luxem- 
burgians have preserved their own physical, racial and ethical character. 
Luxemburg is a land of varied beauty. In the north (Oesling) stretch the 
wooded heights of the Ardennes, a wild and picturesque region that can vie with 
any in Europe for romantic interest and eerie glamor. The climate has a sharp- 
ness and severity unknown in the south, and yet every available acre is under 
the richest and most careful cultivation. The south (Gutland) melts into the 
plains of Lorraine. 

Under Lothair II the Duchy was included in Lotharingia or Lorraine, and for 
500 years belonged to its natural ally Germany (see Belgium and Germany). 
There was a certain Wiric (Weirich), Count of Ardenne, who claimed descent 
from Charlemagne. Upon his son Henry, Archbishop Bruno of Cologne 
conferred the administration of High Lorraine, and Henry's brother Siegfried 
became the founder of the House of Luxemburg, and the father of a race of 
emperors, kings, archbishops, counts, knights, cathedral builders, crusaders and 
saints. Siegfried proved a wise ruler and founded the present city of Luxemburg. 

In 723 Charles Martel fell ill at Trier. The Monks laid him on St. Maximin's 
tomb, and in gratitude for his recovery, Charles made over to the convent four 
districts which he possessed in Austrasia. One of these was called Urismaris 
Ecclesia or Weimerskirch, and near it stood an old ruined fort, built, according 
to tradition, by the Emperor Gallienus in the 3rd century. It was called Lucilen- 
burhut or Laetilingonoburgum (a little outpost). Siegfried made it into a 
fortified castle, and the town gradually grew up around it, while the changing 
tongue of the people softened its name from Lutzelbourg to Luxemburg. 

By the Congress of Vienna (1815), the Duchy went to William I of Holland, 
Prince of Orange-Nassau- Vianden, and descended from the old House of Luxem- 
burg, and the Duchy was incorporated into the Germanic confederation. The 
Treaty of London (1859) finally settled the limits of the Duchy; the Walloon 
section went to Belgium to form the Belgian province of Luxemburg, and the 
Duchy was reduced to about one-quarter of its size under its first Duke, Wen- 
ceslaus I. It was made a hereditary kingdom under the males of the Nassau 
family and was ruled by the Kings of Holland. William II drafted the constitu- 
tion, and placed Luxemburg under the German Zollverein. Upon the death of 
William III in 1890, Prince Adolf William of the elder branch of the family 
succeeded. He died in 1905 and his son became Grand Duke, but owing to his 
illness, his wife, the Grand Duchess Marie Anne, acted as regent. On April 16, 
1907, a family arrangement was concluded whereby the succession was to go to 
his eldest daughter, as he had no sons, and on July 10, 1907, a law was passed 
in the Duchy confirming this decision. On the death of her father in 1905, the 
Grand Duchess Marie became ruler of Luxemburg. 

In 1867, by an agreement of the Great Powers, Luxemburg was made a 
neutral State and the fortifications of the capital were demolished. There is no 
army, with the exception of a guard of about 150, and a gendarmerie of 150 more. 

The Duchy is a constitutional monarchy, with a chamber of deputies (53 
members, elected directly by the cantons for 6 years, half renewed every 3 years). 
It is in session but four months in the year. The Duchy has an area of 998 sq. 
mi. and a population of 259,891 (1910). 




Montenegro 




NICHOLAS I 









PRINCE DANILO AND STAFF 




ORDER OF DANILO I 



NICHOLAS I. 




Nicholas I was born on October 7, 1841, and received 
his education at Trieste and Paris, where the news of 
the assassination of his uncle Danilo II (August, 1860) 
reached him. Upon his accession he decided to carry out 
the reforms begun by Danilo, and has proved a very 
liberal monarch. He established schools, legal tribunals, 
and administrative bureaus, and in 1905 granted a liberal 
constitution to the people. Under his wise and careful 
rule the country has made remarkable progress, and the 
people have prospered. He has especially encouraged 
literature and is a writer and poet of considerable 
ability. "The Queen of the Balkans" and "Prince 
x\rnavit" have been translated into several languages. 

On November 8, 1860, he married .the Princess 
Milena, daughter of Peter Vukotic, Senator and Vice- 
President of the Council of State. There are nine 
children : Princess Militza (b. July 26, 1866 ; married 
in 1888 the Grand Duke Peter Nikolaievitch of Russia), 
Princess Stana (b. Jan. 4, 1868; married in 
1889 the Duke of Leuchtenberg, and in 1907 the Grand 
Duke Niolas Nikolaievitch), Prince Danilo Alexander, 
heir apparent (b. June 29, 1871 ; married in 
1899 the Princess Jutta of Mecklenburg-Strelitz,) Princess 
Helena (b. Jan. 8, 1873 ; married in 1896 King Victor 
Emanuel of Italy), Princess Anna (b. Aug. 18, 1874; mar- 
Tied in 1897 Prince Francis Joseph of Battenberg), Prince Mirko (b. April 17, 
1879; married in 1902 Natalie Constantinovich), Princess Xenia (b. Apr. 22, 
1881), Princess Vera (b. Feb. 22, 1887), and Prince Peter (b. Oct. 10, 1889). 



HISTORY 



Montenegro formed part of the Roman province of Illyria, and belonged 
first to Rome and then to Constantinople, acknowledging the ecclesiastical 
authority of the latter. During the 6th and 7th centuries it passed into the 
control of the Serbs, who still form the majority of the population. The Serb 
principality of the Zeta (Zenta) included Montenegro, which shared the fortunes 
of Servia until the battle of Kossovo (see Servia). The Montenegrins withdrew 
to the shelter of their mountain fastnesses from which they waged a continual 
warfare with the Turks. Ivan the Black (c. 1484) established his capital at 
Cettinje, where he founded a monastery and bishopric. From then until 1696, 
the people were ruled by the Bishops of Cettinje, who were elected by assemblies 
of the chiefs and people and consecrated by the Patriarch of Ipek. They were 
assisted in matters of defense by a civil governor. In 1696 the people decided 
to revive the hereditary principle and called in Danilo Petrovitch of Niegush 
(founder of the present reigning family). The succession was henceforth from 
uncle to nephew, owing to the rule of celibacy of the monastic order. Under 
Danilo I occurred the massacre of the Turks (Montenegrin Vespers of 1702), 
the defeat of the Turks at Tzarevlatz (1712), the capture of Cettinje by the Turks 
(1714), and the opening of relations with Russia by Danilo's visit to Peter the 
Great. Peter I (1782-1830) joined the Austrian and Russian forces against 
Turkey, defeating her in the battle of Krussa (1796), annexed the Brda region, 
obtained formal recognition of the independence of Montenegro from the Sultan 
in 1799, re-organized the internal administration, and promulgated the first code 





MONTENEGRO 



251 




VETERANS 

of laws. Peter II (1830-51) instituted a senate (1831), abolished the office of 
civil governor, revived the national printing press and did much for the education 
of his people. His nephew, Danilo II, refused the ecclesiastical dignity, assumed 
the title of gospoda (prince), thus settling the succession on the direct male 
heir, defeated the Turks near Ostroy (1853), and promulgated a new code giving 
civil and religious liberty to the people. He was assassinated on August 11, 
1860, and his nephew, Nicholas, succeeded. Prince Nicholas entered upon a 
disastrous war with the Turks, after which the country suffered greatly from 
pestilence and famine. Montenegro joined the Russo-Turkish War of 1877, 
and obtained Nikshitch, Antivari and Dulcigno, recovering the seaboard which 
had been lost since the Middle Ages. Nicholas reformed the army, initiated 
schemes of education and granted a constitution (1905). In 1906 the first 
Parliament met and on August 28, 1910, Prince Nicholas assumed the title of 
King. From 1880, till the Balkan troubles of 1912, the country had remained 
at peace, developing its internal resources, but in 1912, Montenegro joined the 
Balkan League and fought valiantly against the Turks. By the treaty of 
Bucharest (July 25, 1913) she obtained 168 sq. mi. of Scutari, and 1,961 sq. mi. 



252 THE EUROPEAN WAR. 

of Kossovo. In the present European war she allied herself with Servia. 

Montenegro has a total area of 5,603 sq. mi. and a population of 516,000 
(including 230,000 in the new territories). The people are chiefly pastoral and 
agricultural, and the great majority are Serbo-Croats. 

The government is vested in the King, Council of State, which consists of 
the Crown Prince, Metropolitan Bishop, all ministers, and councillors appointed 
by the King, and Skupschtina (members elected for 4 years). 




THE ARMY. 

Every Montenegrin is a soldier, his weapon is never left aside and military 
distinction is his high ambition. The long and desperate struggle for national 
existence has developed in him an unrivalled aptitude for guerilla warfare, and 
until the middle of the 19th century, the army consisted only of undisciplined bands 
of tribesmen, under local chiefs. The supreme command, however, remained 
with the prince. Peter II started a permanent army, with the formation of the 
perianiki, a bodyguard of picked men; Danilo II ordered the enrollment (1853) 
of all persons capable of bearing arms and created the offices of general, colonel 
and captain. The organization, which was based somewhat on the tribal system, 
was revised by Servian officers, who were called in (1870) to assist in training the 
soldiers. Since that year, Russia has furnished the chief supply of arms. Prince 
Nicholas re-organized the army thoroughly in accordance with modern methods. 

According to the law of 1910, military service is compulsory from the age of 
18 to 62. The soldier serves 2 years with the colors (with 6 months' training 
each year, though in practice it amounts to 3 months in the artillery and 2 in the 
other branches, each year) ; then the soldier belongs for 33 years to the active 
army, and for 8 years to the reserve. The active army is divided into two 
classes : those fit for active service and those fit for less taxing duties, such as 
transport, supply or medical. The active army may be called up for not more 
than 15 days' service in the year. Those unable to perform military service by 
reason of physical unfitness, pay a special military tax, which varies according to 
their means. There is no cavalry. 

The war strength of the army is about 50,000 men, and in 1913 Montenegro 
spent $900,000 for military purposes, receiving in addition a subsidy of about 
$350,000 from Russia. 




Servi 




PETER I 





CROWN PRINCE ALEXANDER 




PETER I. 

King Peter Karageorgevich I, was born on June 29 (O. S.), 1844. He is. 
the grandson of George Czerny, surnamed Karageorge (Black George), who was- 
elected the head of the nation's forces in the Servian insurrection against the 
Turks in the beginning of the 19th century. Those who favored this family 
formed a conspiracy against Alexander I, who represented the Obrenovich line, 
and on June 11, 1903, Alexander I and Queen Draga were assassinated. The 
throne was offered to Peter who accepted it. King Peter was very popular as 
a young man, and earned the title of the "Red Prince" on account of his socialistic 
views. Though he came to the throne under a shadow, his reign has been 
apparently acceptable to the majority. He married in 1883, a daughter of 
the Prince of Montenegro, Princess Zorka, who died in 1890. He has two sons,. 
Prince George (b. in 1887) and Prince Alexander (b. in 1888), and a daughter, 
Princess Helene (b. in 1884). In 1909, Prince George voluntarily renounced 
his rights to the succession and his brother, Prince Alexander, was recognized 
as heir to the throne. 




1. ORDER OF ST. SAVA 

2. ORDER OF THE WHITE EAGLE 

3. ORDER OF TAKOVO 



SERVIA 



259 




M. PASHITCH 
Prime Minister 



GENERAL 
PUTNICK 




MM 



CHIEF OF 
STAFF 






M. NIKIHFOROFF 

Minister of War 




9999 



HISTORY. 

According to the earliest records, the Serbs are a Slavonic people, who were 
found dwelling along the Wissla and Dneister Rivers in Galicia before the sixth 
century. Early in this century they migrated to the Black Sea, and then advanced 
westward along the left bank of the Danube, crossing the river and occupying 
the northwestern part of the Balkan peninsula. They came into conflict with 
the Greeks, but the Emperor Heraclius finally made peace with them and con- 
firmed them in their new possessions as long as they recognized his suzerainty. 
But the Serbs did not at once build up a cohesive state, owing to reasons partly 
racial and partly political. They had a system of Zhupaniyas (whereby each 
clan or a group of related clans occupied a certain section of the country), under 
the leadership of a chief or Zhupan. These Zhupaniyas were all independent of 
one another, and there was a constant struggle for supremacy among the more 
powerful ones. The difficulties of union were further increased by the internal 
dissensions of each Zhupaniya, caused by the old Slavonic idea of inheritance, 
whereby the power went to the oldest member of the family, rather than from 
father to son. Further complications arose from the rivalry between the Greek 
Empire on one side and Hungary and Venice on the other, to possess a dominating 
influence in the Servian lands. With the rise of the Bulgarian nation in the 7th 
century, the Serbs were forced to divide their allegiance, and from the 8th to the 
12th centuries, acknowledged the Bulgarian (Greek) or Venetian and Hungarian 
power. 

Attempts at union, however, were made many times, but never succeeded for 
long. Zhupan Visheslav, Vlastivir (under whom the Serbs embraced Christianity 
between 871-875), and St. Vladimir were the most successful leaders, but it was 
left to Stephen Nemanya, Zhupan of Rashka (1169), to unite all the Serbs under 
one rule, and hence he may be considered the real founder of the Servian kingdom, 
over which his descendants ruled for two hundred years. During this period, 
Servia kept pace with the general development of European civilization, and in 
manners, customs and general education compared favorably with the rest of 
Europe. From this period date her great epics and the people to this day, in 
their folk songs, sing of the heroic deeds of that time. In 1349 Stephen Dushan 
convoked at Uskub the Sabor (Parliament) to begin the codification of the laws 
and legal customs, which was published under the title of Zakonik Tsara 
Dushana. The Turks began their incursions about this time, and in 1371 the 
Serbs suffered from them a severe check, which became an utter defeat at the 
battle of Kossovo in 1389. The Serbs attempted to rally their forces, and under 
Hunyadi Janos defeated the Turks at Kunovista, forcing the Sultan to make 
peace. He restored to the Serbs the lands which had been confiscated, and 
acknowledged Prince George as their ruler. The Serbs made another appeal to 
Europe, but she refused any further aid and the Serbs were again obliged to 
yield to the Turks, who in 1459 laid waste the country and made it a pashalik 
under the direct control of the Porte. 



SERVIA 



261 




For the next 300 years Servia declined, suffering all the miseries of Turkish 
oppression, unable to develop a national life or the natural resources of the coun- 
try. Subject to constant inroads and massacres, the people were barely able to 
preserve their existence. The Serbs formed willing volunteers to the Austrian 
armies in the 18th century during their campaigns against the Turks, and Turkish 
rule was so far weakened by 1804 that the Serbs were able to make an effective 
revolt. They elected George Petrovich (Karageorge) in national assembly 
commander-in-chief of the national forces and the leader of the nation. The 
Turks were swept out in 1807, and the Sultan offered to grant the Serbs self- 
government and to acknowledge George as Prince. The Serbs, however, relying 
on Russian aid, refused, preferring to join the Russians against Turkey ; but when 
conditions at home forced Russia to sign hastily the treaty of Bucharest, Servian 
interests were forgotten and the country was left again to the Turks, who occupied 
the country in force. Milosh was appointed ruler and succeeded in organizing the 
Serbs once more against the Turks, with the result that by the treaty of Adrianople 
(1829), full autonomy was granted the Serbs, though Turkish garrisons were 
permitted to remain in Servian fortresses. Milosh was declared hereditary 
prince, and worked zealously for the country's welfare under great difficulties, 
but his autocratic methods displeased the people and he clashed with Russia. 
Hence he was forced to abdicate in 1839. His younger son, Michael, ascended 
the throne, but was also forced to abdicate in 1842, when Alexander Kara- 
georgevich (younger son of Karageorge) became ruler. Though the country 
prospered, his Austrian tendencies and refusal to summon the national assembly 
dissatisfied the people. Milosh was summoned back to power, and was succeeded 
by his son Michael in 1860. Michael proved a wise and liberal ruler, organized 
the national army, and formed alliances with Greece, Montenegro, Bosnia- 
Herzegovina, Bulgaria and Albania, in preparation for an uprising against the 
Turks. In 1867 he formally demanded that the Porte should deliver up all the 
fortresses held in Servia, and the Sultan, advised by Europe, yielded. His 
success aroused the jealousy of the supporters of the Karageorgevich dynasty 
and Michael was assassinated on June 10, 1868. The national assembly pro- 
claimed Milan (son of Michael's cousin) Prince of Servia. 



262 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




Milan at first favored Russian interests, but receiving little from the war 
of 1877 (between Turkey and Russia) tried to conciliate Austria. The Congress 
of Berlin (1878) guaranteed the complete independence of the country but gave 
little else, and from then until 1889, there was a constant struggle between Milan 
and the progressives on one side and the radicals and Russian influence on the 
other. ^ Milan was hampered in his reforms by financial difficulties and the Servo- 
Bulgarian war, but granted a very liberal constitution in January, 1889, and then 
resigned in favor of his young son, Alexander, leaving the country to a regency. 
Under Alexander, a conservative party arose, in reaction against the constant 
quarrels between the Liberals and Radicals, and the country turned its attention 
to agriculture and commerce, while the foreign policy began to lean towards 
Austria. Alexander's unfortunate marriage with Queen Draga, brought him 
great unpopularity, which was increased by his reactionary constitution of 1901. 
The adherents of the Karageorgevich family took advantage of the discontent 
and Alexander and Draga were assassinated on June 11, 1903. Peter Kara- 
georgevich (grandson of Karageorge) was declared King. Europe accepted Peter 
very reluctantly, but by 1906 he was everywhere recognized. The idea of a 
'Great Servia" now began to take possession of the people; they agitated for 
the reunion of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro and Old Servia into a Servian 
Empire, but were forced to accede to the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina in 
1908 by Austria. In 1912, however, Servia felt strong enough to assert herself, 
and joined the Balkan League, entering upon the first Balkan War. In this war 
Servia fought (in common with the other Balkan States), with a brilliance and 
ability that surprised Europe, and at Monastir and Durazzo won splendid 
victories. Turkey was defeated, and negotiations for peace were under way, 
when differences arose between Bulgaria and Servia, which led to the second 
Balkan War. The Balkans finally secured peace by the Treaty of Bucharest 
(July 25, 1913), whereby Servia gained 1,795 sq. mi. of Salonika, 3,473 sq. mi. 
of Monastir and 9,973 sq. mi. of Kossovo. 

Servia has an area of 33,891 sq. mi. and a population of 4,547,992 (2,911,701 
in Old Servia, 1,636,291 in New Servia). The chief industry is agriculture, 
nearly every peasant cultivating his own freehold. 

According to the constitution of 1889, the executive power is vested in the 
King and his ministers, and the legislative in the King in conjunction with the 



SERVIA. 



263 



national assembly and council of State. The national assembly is elected by the 
people ; the council of State consists of 8 members elected by the assembly and 
8 appointed by the King. 




OFFICERS 



THE ARMY. 



Servia may be said to have been always in arms, but the constant guerilla 
struggle with the Turks allowed neither time nor means for a regularly organized 
army on European lines. In the 19th century, however, Servia paid considerable 
attention to the organization of her army. Prince Michael (1860) reformed the 
administration, but the army had no reputation in Europe. Early in this century, 
Servia began seriously to drill and perfect her armed force, which owing to the 
enthusiasm of the people, and the inspiration of a popular cause, won a high 
reputation during the Balkan War of 1912-13, and at the opening of hostilities, 
Servia was able to put into the field about 190,000 men. Though Bulgaria had 
promised to send 100,000 to assist the Serbs in the Macedonian campaign, she 
changed her plans at the last minute, and Servia had to advance without this 
assistance. However, in conjunction with Montenegro, the Serbs won the battle 
of Kumanova, and obtained possession of Novibazar ; but the defection of Bulgaria 
was not forgotten, and in the Second Balkan War, she was completely defeated 
(Semitli, July 25-27, 1913). Though the numerical strength of their army was 
reduced by these wars, the Serbs were almost compensated by the gain in national 
pride and confidence. 

Military service is compulsory, from the age of 18 to 50, though recruits 
may enter at 21 and complete their service at 45. The soldier serves one and a 
half years in the infantry (two in the cavalry and artillery) ; he then passes into 
the reserve to complete 10 years and serves 6 years more in the 2nd ban and 8 
years more in the 3rd. The kingdom is divided into 5 divisional areas, each 



264 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 



supplying a division of the active army of 2 infantry brigades, a field artillery 
regiment and a regiment of divisional cavalry. There is also a cavalry division 
of 4 regular regiments, recruited from the whole country. The total peace 
strength (1912) was 2,038 officers and 28,000 men, which, with the aid of all 
effective reserves, could be raised to 195,000. 

Servia expended on the army in 1914, $958,835. Servia has no aeroplane 
fleet, but possesses a few scouting aeroplanes. 




TYPES OF SOLDIERS 




"FIRE" 




Japan 




YOSHIH.TO HARU:;0:.1.VA 





EMPRESS SADAKO 




H. M. MUTSHITO, LATE MIKADO OF JAPAN 



YOSHIHITO HARUNOMIYA 

. The Emperor Yoshihito Harunomiya was born on August 31, 1879, at the 
Aoyama Palace, the third son of the Emperor Mutshito and the Countess Yanaga- 
ware. Though of frail physique, his severe and simple training and fondness for 
sports has succeeded in giving him normal health. He received his education at 
the Peer's School, where he distinguished himself in Chinese Classics and French. 
He is particularly fond of writing poetry and his efforts in Chinese and Japanese 
verse are much admired. He began his military education under General Oku 
and at sixteen was appointed colonel in the army. According to the custom 
whereby the Emperor names the most promising of his sons to succeed him, and 
owing to the death of his two older brothers, he was declared heir apparent in 1887 
and proclaimed Crown Prince in 1889. He married on May 10, 1900, the Princess 
Sadako, daughter of Prince Michitaka of the House of Kujo. The Empress has 
also received a modern education, and both the Emperor and Empress usually 
appear in European dress. They have adopted European customs to a much 
greater degree than the Emperor Mutshito, and the new palace built for the Crown 
Prince is in the European style. Yoshihito succeeded to the throne on the death 
of his father on July 30, 1912. He has three sons: the Princes Hirohito 
Michinomiya (b. April 29, 1901), Yasuhito Atssunomija (b. June 25, 1902) and 
Nobuhito Terunomiya (b. Jan. 3, 1905). 






HISTORY 

The Japanese claim an ancient origin, lost in the myths of antiquity. 
According to their legends, there was in the beginning a divine trinity, resting 
on "the high plain of heaven." Bending down from their high estate, they 
separated the land from the waters. Then through indefinite processes, a series 
of seven celestial deities came into being, each process seeming to represent a 
nearer approach to earthly things. Finally by a further series of creations, 
purely spiritual, Japan was evolved, and from the earthly union of the two 
principal deities, the race of the Mikados arose. Other stories relate how 
Sosanoo, the God of Force, having disobeyed a celestial command was banished 
from Heaven, but before descending to Hades, invested one of his descendants 
with the sovereignty of Japan, and hence to this day the Japanese claim a divine 
descent for their emperors. The very word Mikado means venerable or august. 

Coming down to historical times, we find that, about the early 6th 
century, B. C, Jimmu, a poor, but ambitious prince in possession of a small 
principality on the Island of Kiousiou, began the conquest of the Japanese 
archipelago. After many bloody contests with the natives, he succeeded in 
establishing his authority, and at his death in 585 left a fairly stable kingdom. 
The chronicles give scanty accounts of his successors, and none seem to have 
assumed any great importance until Sujin (98-30 B. C). He undertook vigorous 
campaigns against the natives, ordered a census, levied taxes on animal skins, 
(which were to be paid by the men) and on textiles (paid by the women), built 
up a coastwise trade, and constructed dikes and reservoirs. The Emperor Keiko 
began the custom of granting lands to the numerous royal offspring, and thus laid 
the foundations of the landed nobility, who were to influence so widely the latter 
course of Japanese history. 

Valuable and interesting descriptions of the early Japanese are found in the 
Chinese records from 25 to 265 of our era, and in point of accuracy are reliable, 
though the historical period of Japan does not begin until about 400. Chinese 
immigration, directly and indirectly through Korea, began early to flow into the 
country, and with the introduction of Buddhism from Korea in 552, Chinese 
civilization took deep root. The new faith did not entirely supercede the old 
religion of Shintoism, for at various times cults were formed for its preservation. 
Chinese customs, laws and art were introduced, and the Japanese even adopted 
the ancient Chinese literature as their own in a sense much stronger and more 
intimate than Europe adopted the Greek and Latin. Chinese music and dancing 
were taught, cross-bows and catapaults were added to the war equipment, and 
architecture followed the Buddhist style. The luxurious refinements of Chinese 
life were eagerly adopted, and in scale of living and magnificence of dress, the 
Japanese far outshown their models. Kioto was at one time made the royal city, 
and the Emperors, surrounded by their numerous wives, rarely left the palace. 
As a consequence, the direction of political affairs easily fell into the hands of 
the great families, and as the Emperors felt the substance of their power slipping 
away, they attempted to grasp the shadow by the organization of the religious 
hierarchy, appointing its members from the imperial family. Kioto came thus 
to be the sacred city and its shrines the center of pilgrimage for all 



272 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




Japan. The nominal power still remained with the Emperor, but the actual 
rule was in the firm and capable hands of the great families or clans, who by 
matrimonial alliances with royalty, or force, ruled with, or in spite of, the 
Emperor, and from the 9th to the 19th centuries the history of Japan is the 
history of the Fujiwara, the Taira, the Miniamoto and the Tokugawa families. 

Under the Fujiwara families many temples were built, and great strides 
made in art and literature. Literary proficiency was considered the end of 
existence and a man "estimated the conjugal qualities of a young lady by her 
skill in finding scholarly similes and by her perception of the cadence of words." 
Side by side with these refinements, however, a system of military feudalism 
began to crystallize, which reached full development under the Taira and 
Miniamoto families, and which in spite of much opposition held the country in 
a powerful grip. Society was divided into three groups : the court and nobility 
(kuge), the military class (samurai), and the common people (heimin). The 
Emperor screened in the recesses of his palace, was popularly supposed to be 
absorbed in mediation between his heavenly ancestors and his people, while the 
shogun and samurai kindly relieved him of all wordly concerns. He never 
appeared in public uncovered, and granted an audience from behind closed doors. 
Only his chief ministers and consorts had the inestimable pleasure of viewing 
his countenance; he had one wife, the Empress, but might have twelve consorts, 
and in case of failure of direct issue, the succession went to one of the Aisugawa 
or Fushimi, though adoption was resorted to in special cases. The court 
nobility traced their lineage from the ancient Mikados, filled all the court offices 
by right of inheritance, receiving indeed but a small recompense for their privi- 
leges, and lived a life of dignified poverty, occupying themselves with the 
consolations of literature and art. The samurai (see Army) held hereditary 
positions in the administrative posts. The heimin had no social position whatever 
and lived as best they could by the fruit of their toil. Below these were the eta 
(defiled folk) and the hinin (outcasts), who were utterly abandoned and despised 
by all, and made to live in a class by themselves. They had their own social 
organization and what with one trade and another, some even managed to amass 
considerable wealth. They were held in subjection until 1871, when they were 
admitted to the ranks of commoners. 

By the middle of the 16th century, the strife between the feudal families 
had reduced Japan to such an unhappy state of confusion that she seemed doomed 
to perish; but fortunately at this juncture, three men appeared who by force 
of genius and circumstance were able to bring order out of chaos and confer a 
lasting peace upon their distracted country. They were Nobunaga, Tokugawa 



" W ■' 



*^fe 






% 



\, 



/ i 




i* 






« 




J~\ 




^ 




'** 






f r^ 




















JAPAN. 



275 




Iyeyasu and Hideyoshi. Hideyoshi began as a groom in Nobunaga's service, and 
by sheer force of ability rose to a commanding position in the empire. Iyeyasu, 
though a firm Buddhist, introduced the code of Confusius and at his death left 
Japan with a settled government. During the reigns of these men, Christianity 
was introduced by St. Francis Xavier and his followers, and though they were 
at first received with encouragement, Hideyoshi and Iyeyasu eventually turned 
against the new faith. By 1639, not only was Christianity exterminated, but the 
country was committed to a policy of exclusion and isolation which remained 
unbroken until 1853, when Commodore Perry sailed into Uraga Bay with his 
squadron of four ships-of-war. This visit sounded the death knell of the feudal 
system ; the wisest of her statesmen saw that Japan could not continue as before. 
The western world would seek her, and if she were to retain her position and 
increase her influence, western ideas and progressive reforms must be entertained. 
The people were beginning to be restive under the rule of the shoguns and public 
opinion was thus somewhat prepared for a change. On October 14, 1867, the 
Shogun Yoshinobu, a man of progressive policy, and advanced ideas, though 
there were not wanting men to impugn his motives, resigned his authority, restor- 
ing it to the Emperor Mutshito, then but fifteen years of age. Mutshito proved a 
man of liberal convictions and shrewd foresight, capable of appreciating the 
value of western ideas and able to draw around him men of the ability and energy 
necessary for the successful inauguration of the new reforms. 

Liberal measures in accordance with western ideas were gradually adopted in 
industry, science, commerce, military matters, education, art and government. 
The Japanese have a wonderful power of assimilating new methods ; their alert 
and agile minds are marvelously swift to grasp the essentials of a new idea, quick 
to modify and apply, and hence the reforms made a headway that is almost 
incredible to western minds. Almost overnight old customs and laws were over- 
thrown, seemingly without a ripple on the smooth surface of events, and the 
re-adjustment came about apparently with the calmness of the natural course of 
events. As to whether these changes have really touched the core of 
that subtle oriental mind, glimpses of which still shine through the keen Japanese 
eye, only the course of events can decide. In 1871 an imperial decree put an 
end to the system of local autonomy and removed the territorial nobles from the 
posts of governors. This change also marked the end of the samurai as a 
privileged class. With remarkable resignation they submitted to the loss of their 
position and gradually, without a murmur, found places among the ranks of the 
common people. Under the skillful guidance of Prince Ito, Count Okuma and 



276 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 



Count Itagaki, the reforms were carried to conclusion. In 1890, a constitution, 
drafted by Prince Ito, was given to the people. 

Filled with confidence and pride at the marvelous development of their 
country, the nation began to feel the necessity for expansion. A dispute with 
China over the relations of the two countries with Korea, led to the Chinese War 
of 1894, and from it Japan emerged with a formidable reputation for military 
efficiency. She gained also the Islands of Formosa and the Pescadores, and a 
slice of Manchuria. The Russian policy in the Far East, particularly in Man- 
churia and Korea, was watched with jealous alarm by Japan, but it was not until 
1904 that she felt sufficiently strong, and the course of events allowed her to 
attack Russia. The Russo-Japanese War made her the dominating power 
in the Far East, gave her preponderance in Korea (which she annexed in 1910), 
the lease of the Liaotung peninsula and the southern half of the Island of 
Sakhalin, besides other minor concessions. Japan also entered into important 
commercial treaties with the United States and European powers, and in 1902 
concluded an entente with Great Britain, which in 1905 was changed to an 
offensive and defensive alliance. Thus strengthened by foreign alliances, and 
secure in her position in the East, Japan at last felt justified in considering herself 
one of the world powers. The Emperor Mutshito died in 1912 and was succeeded 
by his son Yoshihito. 

Japan has an area of 147,655 sq. mi., and a population of 52,985,423. The 
land is largely held by peasant proprietors and the chief industry is agriculture. 
Coal, copper, sulphur, iron and gold are considerably mined, and manufactures are 
rapidly developing. The exports for 1913-14 amounted to $263,490, 920 and the 
imports to $309,496,155. 

The colonies and dependencies are: Cho-sen or Korea (annexed in 1910, 
area, 84,000 sq. mi.; pop., 15,164,066), Formosa (area, 13,944 sq. mi.; pop., 
3,512,607, mostly Chinese), the Pescadores (area, 85 sq. mi.; pop., 55,222), 
Sakhalin (ceded by the Treaty of Portsmouth, 1905; area, 12,582 sq. mi.; pop., 
42,612), Kwantung Province, including Port Arthur and Dairen (Russia trans- 
ferred the lease, which expires in 1923, by the Treaty of Portsmouth; area, 1,219 
sq. mi. ; pop., 501,767). 

According to the constitution, the executive power is vested in the Emperor, 
who is assisted by his ministers whom he appoints; and the legislative in the 
Emperor and the Diet. The Diet consists of a House of Peers (peers elected for 
life, including male members of the imperial family, princes and marquises over 
25 years, and persons nominated by the Emperor for special services ; and peers 
elected for 7 years), and the House of Representatives (members elected for 
4 years). 





GENERAL KATO KIYOMASA PARDONING THE TWO KOREAN PRINCES 



278 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 







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TYPES OF UNIFORMS 




ADMIRAL TAKARABE 
Minister of Marine 





ADMIRAL DAVA 

In Command of the Operations 

Against Tsing-Tau 



1. ORDER OF THE SUNRISE 

2. ORDER OF THE SACRED TREASURE 




THE ARMY 



According to Japanese tradition, Japan was from the very beginning a nation 
of warriors. The sovereign was the commander-in-chief, and all subjects were 
obligated to serve in the ranks. About 712, Chinese models of warfare were 
adopted and the distinction between civil and military was first established then. 
One-third of the physically fit constituted the army, service was for a definite 
time, and arms were served out by the State as occasion demanded. Officers 
received definite commissions, a military office was organized, and each important 
district throughout the empire had its military division. At the close of the 8th 
century the Japanese in defense against the natives, had to enlarge their forces 
and the conscription was greatly increased. The powerful clans began to claim 
military positions as their right and to pass them down from father to son. In 
the 12th century the country was brought under the sway of the Miniamoto clan 
and the samurai alone had the right of bearing arms. The military class claimed 
social and military supremacy until the 19th century. 

This system developed among the samurai a type of soldier, frugal, loyal 
and pious to the last degree. They received their pay in so many rations of rice, 
delivered from the chief's granaries ; a few even had landed estates, usually 
bestowed in recognition of merit, but the samurai profoundly despised everything 
connected with money. Their dearest privilege was the right of wearing a sword, 
and at any moment they were prepared to sacrifice themselves out of loyalty to 
chief or country. Thorough stoics, they were trained to face suffering without 
flinching and taught that suicide (harakiri) was often the noblest and highest 
form of duty, especially if it were thought that it would turn a liege lord from a 
course injurious to his fame or fortune. 

Martial exercises took up much of their time, but they also paid considerable 
attention to learning and followed a set code of manners. The bow and sword 
were the chief weapons, and in the use of the latter the soldier gained a wonderful 
skill and dexterity. A samurai usually carried two swords, and before going 
into battle provided himself with five or six, and a dagger, for good measure, 
stuck into his bosom. Until 1274, men fought as individuals and not units, but 
the obvious disadvantage of such a system led to the adoption of better tactics, 
though it was not until the 17th century that strictly disciplined action came into 
use. Buddhism supplied a great impetus to the samurai's conception of duty and 
of life, and was largely instrumental in developing his qualities of endurance 



280 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




and fatalism, qualities which yet add enormously to the fighting power of the 
Japanese soldier. 

Though after the Shimabara insurrection, the samurai was forbidden foreign 
learning, new ideas filtered in little by little. Takashima Shuhan endeavored to 
persuade his government of the importance of adopting foreign and modern 
methods, but was thrown into prison for his pains. Egawa, his follower, was 
more successful and the appearance of the American war vessels in 1853 decided 
the government to heed his urgings. In 1862 the military system of the West was 
introduced and Omura Masujiro founded a military school at Kioto (1868). In 
1872 the Imperial Guard was organized, the military authority was placed in the 
hands of the central government, the war and navy departments were created, 
and universal conscription was substituted (1873) for hereditary militarism. 
From then the army was thoroughly re-organized on German lines, with results 
shown in the Chinese War of 1894 and the Russo-Japanese War of 1904. In 
both Japan was uniformly successful. 

Military service is compulsory from the age of 17 to 40 but 20 is the more 
usual age for joining. The soldier serves two years in the infantry (three in 
the other arms), seven and one-third in the first reserve, ten in the second reserve, 
and the remainder in the national army. A special reserve, consisting of men who 
have escaped service with the colors, is divided into two classes : one which 
serves seven and one-third years and the other one and one-third years, and then 
the men pass into the territorial army, in which they receive no training. Con- 
scripts may be discharged before the completion of their two years, for exceptional 
merit. 

The army is divided into the active army (foreign service), with the first 
and second reserves, the national army (home defense), a few special forces, 
and the militia of certain of the islands. The peace strength numbers 150 infantry 
battalions; 55 squadrons of cavalry; 177 batteries of field artillery; 24 battalions 
of coast artillery; 13 battalions, pioneers; 13 battalions, train; one railway and 
one telegraph battalion ; — giving a total of about 350,000 men. To this may be 
added 250,000 in the first reserve, and 1,000,000 in the second. Thus with all 
available reserves the war strength would be about 3,000,000. 

Japan expended for her army in 1914, $49,983,035. 



CHANGING 

THE 
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TYPES OF 
INFANTRY 



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INFANTRY CHARGING 



284 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




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THE NAVY 




Though the geographical position of 
Japan demands a navy, the country 
never made any attempts to secure one 
until 1853, when the visit of the Ameri- 
can squadron suggested to the govern- 
ment the advantages of a policy of build- 
ing warships. In 1855 a navy yard was 
opened at Nagasaki, and a naval school 
organized at Tsukiji in Yedo. Two 
vessels purchased from the Dutch, and 
one presented by Queen Victoria, formed 
the nucleus of the fleet; in 1860 the 
"Kwanrin Manu," the first Japanese 
warship, crossed the Pacific. After the 
American Civil War the Japanese pur- 
chased the Confederate armored ram 
"Stonewall," and began a definite naval 
policy. In 1882 a program of 30 cruisers 
and 12 torpedo boats was laid down, but 
little more was done until 1892, when it 
was decided to appropriate annually 
$150,000 for the navy. In the Chinese 
War of 1894, Japan had 28 cruisers and 
24 torpedo boats, but with this slender 
force managed to defeat the superior 
Chinese fleet off the Yalu and at Wei- 
hai-wei. After this modern ships were 
'ordered in Europe and in the Russian 
War, the fleet was very successful. It then numbered 6 battleships, 8 armored 
cruisers, 44 other cruisers, 19 destroyers, and 80 torpedo boats. 

The navy is under the control of a minister of Marine and a vice-minister, 
who are assisted by 10 departments on naval affairs and a general staff. The 
navy is manned partly by conscription and partly by volunteers ; about 5,000 are 
called every year (45 per cent conscript). The service is for four years active 
and seven in the reserve. The personnel numbers 65,559, with a small reserve 
(6,000). 



286 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




BATTLESHIP "TANGO" 



Since 1882 Japan has dispensed with foreign instruction; since 1886 she has 
been able to manufacture prismatic powder, and since 1891, quick-firing guns. 
In 1892 a Japanese officer invented the powerful explosive, Shimose. 
The strength of the fleet in 1914 is : 

Built Building 

Battleships 15 1 

Battle cruisers 1 3 

Armored cruisers 13 — 

Protected cruisers 

1st class 2 — 

2nd class 13 — 

3rd class 4 — 

Unprotected cruisers 4 — 

Torpedo vessels 3 — 

Torpedo destroyers 59 

Torpedo boats 57 — 

Submarines 13 2 

Japan expended for the navy in 1913-14, $49,304,560. 




OFFICER 

COMMANDING 
TORPEDO DIVISION 



JAPAN 



287 




CRUISER "KONGO" 




DREADNOUGHT "SETTSU" 



288 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




ON BOARD A DREADNOUGHT 




SEA MINE EXPLOSION 



JAPAN. 



289 




BATTLESHIP "SUWO" 




PROTECTED CRUISER "SOYA" 




ARMORED CRUISER "IBUHI' 



290 



THE EUROPEAN WAR. 




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292 



JAPAN. 




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VARIOUS PICTURES OF PRESENT INTEREST 




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Preliminary negotiations for the surrender of Sedan 



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SIGNING THE NEW CONCORDAT BETWEEN SERVIA AND THE HOLY SEE, 

JUNE 24, 1914 



Servia had before the Balkan War about 10,000 Catholics mostly for- 
eigners, but in 1913 the new territories added a large number of Catholics, 
and the question of their jurisdiction threatened to complicate the strained 
relations existing between Austria-Hungary and Servia. The word Catholic 
had come to be synonomous with Austrian, and the people viewed with alarm 
any possibility of the extension of Austrian influence. King Peter proposed 
to the Holy See to conclude a concordat directly with the Servian government, 
thus removing any cause of friction that might arise from the possibility of 
Austrian control, and on June 24, 1914, the concordat was signed by His 
Eminence, Cardinal Merry del Val and Dr. Vesnitch, Plenipotentiary of King 
Peter. The announcement of this concordat, so near the assassination of the 
late Archduke Ferdinand, added to the grievances of the Austrian-Hungarian 
government against Servia. 




THE CZAR AND THE KAISER 
The Kaiser in Russian uniform inspecting a company of his regiment during his last 

visit to Russia 




PRESIDENT POINCARfi AND THE CZAR ON THE OCCASION OF HIS LAST 
VISIT TO RUSSIA, JUST BEFORE THE WAR 




KING GEORGE AND PRESIDENT POINCARE 




THE PRINCE OF. WALES AND PRESIDENT POINCARfi 




EMPEROR FRANCIS JOSEPH IN THE UNIFORM OF A MARSHAL OF 

GERMANY AND EMPEROR WILLIAM IN THE UNIFORM 

OF A MARSHAL OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 




THE KAISER AND THE LATE ARCHDUKE FRANCIS FERDINAND 
IN UNIFORM AS GERMAN ADMIRAL 




IN STRONG CONTRAST TO THE PRESENT INTERCOURSE BETWEEN 
FRANCE AND GERMANY, THESE PICTURES SHOW A GROUP OF FRENCH 
AND GERMAN SOLDIERS, ENGAGED IN A PLEASANT EXCHANGE OF 
FRIENDLY RELATIONS DURING THE MANOEUVRES OF THE SUMMER 
OF 1913. 





AUSTRIAN, ENGLISH. FRENCH, GERMAN, ITALIAN AND RUSSIAN 

OFFICERS WITHIN THE TURKISH LINES IN A FRIENDLY 

DISCUSSION OF THE BALKAN WAR 




OFFICERS OF ALL NATIONS AT THE AUSTRIAN-HUNGARIAN 

MANOEUVRES 



INDEX 

INTRODUCTION page VII to page IX 

THE RED CROSS " IX to "XVI 

I SECTION— AUSTRIA-HUNGARY page 1 

The Hapsburg Family page 3 to " 9 

History and Statistics of Austria-Hungary " 9 to '* 13 

History and Statistics of the Army, The Army " 13 to " 29 

History and Statistics of the Navy, The Navy " 29 to " 39 

II SECTION— ENGLAND page 39 

The Guelph Family page 41 to " 49 

History and Statistics of England " 49 to " 52 

History and Statistics of the Army, The Army " 52 to " 66 

History and Statistics of the Navy, The Navy , " 66 to " 81 

III SECTION— FRANCE page 81 

The President page 83 to " 87 

History and Statistics of France " 87 to " 92 

History and Statistics of the Army, The Army " 92 to " 111 

History and Statistics of the Navy, The Navy " 111 to " 125 

IV SECTION— GERMANY page 125 

The Hohenzollern Family page 127 to " 136 

History and Statistics of Germany " 136 to " 143 

History and Statistics of the Army, The Army " 143 to " 165 

History and Statistics of the Navy, The Navy " 165 to " I 181 

V SECTION— RUSSIA page 181 

The Romanov Family page 183 to " 192 

History and Statistics of Russia " 192 to " 198 

History and Statistics of the Army, The Army " 198 to " 217 

History and Statistics of the Navy, The Navy " 217 to " 225 



VI SECTION 

BELGIUM page 225 

The Wettin Family page 227 to " 233 

History and Statistics of Belgium " 233 to " 237 

History and Statistics of the Army, The Army " 237 to " 243 

LUXEMBURG " 243 to " 247 

The Grand Duchess Marie and the History and Statistics 
of Luxemburg 

MONTENEGRO page 247 to page 253 

Nicholas I, History and Statistics of Montenegro, History 
and Statistics of the Army 

SERVIA page 253 

Peter I page 255 to " 260 

History and Statistics of Servia "' 260 to " 263 

History and Statistics of the Army, The Army " 263 to " 265 

VII SECTION 

I Part— JAPAN page 265 



The Imperial Family page 267 to 

History and Statistics of Japan " 271 to 

History and Statistics of the Army, The Army " 279 to 

History and Statistics of the Navy, The Navy " 285 to 

II Part — -Various Pictures of Present Interest 



271 

279 
285 
293 
293 



The great powers of the first five sections follow in alphabetical order, as do 
also the powers of Section VI. 



ERRATA. 



Page 7, line 29, for 1899 read 1889. 

Page 17, line 2, for The Empire is divided into 16 army corps as follows, read 

The Empire is divided into 16 army corps and the whole army is organized 

as follows : 
Page 18, Read at end of paragraph : Austria-Hungary maintained in 1914 an 

airfleet of 112 aeroplanes and 7 dirigibles. 
Page 86, for M. Delcasse, War Minister, read M. Delcasse, Minister of Foreign 

Affairs. 
Page 93, line 13, for Henry IX, read Henry IV. 
Page 148, for The 71 cm. anti-aircraft Krupp gun, read The 7.1 cm. anti-aircraft 

Krupp gun. 
Page 157, for Field Artillery in Action, read Artillery practising with dummy 

field pieces. 
Page 246, line 43, for 1905, read 1912. 



